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Keep an eagle eye open
for color, light, and action.

Coming in January . . .

the Seventh Annual Special Photo Issue.

Stale of Montana
Ted Schwtoden/Govemor

Fish and Game Commission

Bob Jensen/Chairman

Don Bailey '"Vice Chairman

F.W. Howell

Dan Oakland

Jim Olson

Department of Fish. Wildlife and Parks

James W. Flynn/Director

Dick Johnson/Deputy Director

Ronald G. Marcoux/ Associate Director

Conservation Education Division

Ron Aasheim Administrator

Vince Yannone/ Assistant Administrator

Magazine Staff

Dave Books/Editor

Kay Morton Ellertioff Associate Editor

Donita Sexton/ Art Director

Montana Outdoors (USPS 360 280), the official publication of the
Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, is published
bimonthly (January, March, May, July, September, and November).
Contributions (manuscripts or illustrations) are welcome with the
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ment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1420 E. Sixth; Helena, MT 59620.
©Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1987. All rights
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ing offices.

ONTAN

OUTDOORS

Nov. /Dec. 1987
Volume 18, Number 6

FEATURES

2 Clark Fork Rx — Prescription for Renewal?

by Liter Spence

The Clark Fork River in western Montana is a troubled stream. How did the

destruction happen, and is there hope for the future?

9 Montana Outdoors Index

The line-up from 1987.

11 Identification of Montana's Birds of Prey

see page 35 by Kristi DuBois and Dale Becker

illustrated by Joe Thornbrugh

A guide to help you identify Montana's diurnal (active during the day) birds of
prey — hawks, falcons, eagles, and vultures.

32 The Wolf at My Door

by Rand Robbin

The wolfs image and the sound of a door opening are still vivid, even after 45

years.

35 On the Road to Fort Peck Lake

by Tom Palmer

The infamous gumbo may become an inconvenience of the past.

40 Perspectives— "Old and Young"

by Don Laubach and Mark Henckel

illustrated by Robert Neaves

The young hunter has much to learn; the older hunter has much to share.

DEPARTMENTS

7 The Catchall

7 Book Reviews

8 Nongame News
31 Readers Respond
39 Contributors

(OVERS

Fall is the season of color, sometimes golden, bronze, blinding. At other times, the
season's shades are subtle, somber, melancholy even. Inspiration for Joe Thorn-
brugh's front cover painting of a northern goshawk came during a late fall elk hunt
south of Hamilton, and it suggests that winter's icy starkness cannot be far behind. It's
also an invitation to this issue's identification guide to Montana's birds of prey, for
which Thornbrugh did the art. Mark Van Donsel's inside front cover shot of a bald
eagle could also be an introduction to the birds of prey guide; instead, it's the preview
of a coming attraction: the Seventh Annual Special Photo Issue, coming in January.
For some who believe fall is the only season, the antelope is also the only animal;
Rodney Schlect's back cover photo of the pronghorn shows you why.

CLARK FORK Rx—

PRESCRIPTION

FOR RENEWAL?

by Liter Spence

"Before there was man, there was the river. It preceded the
mountains, the trees and virtually all other forms of life. A healthy
river, in its natural condition, is a complete ecosystem, vibrant
with energy and life. It is a vital link to creation, to the longevity
of the planet Earth. Without it, our society— indeed, all living
things — would perish. ' '

—Bill Thomas
"American Rivers, A Natural History"

he Clark Fork River in western Montana is a
troubled stream. A century before "ecology" and
"ecosystem" became household words, destruc-
tion of the river's ecosystem began. How did it
happen? What about the future? The story begins
with. . .

The Miners

In 1852, Francois Finlay, also known as "Benetsee,"
discovered gold nuggets in Gold Creek, a small tributary of the
Clark Fork upstream from the town of Drummond. Benetsee
decided the quantity was insufficient to be profitable, so he did
not pursue the find. About five years later, James and Granville
Stuart, brothers wintering in the Beaverhead Valley, heard about
the discovery and decided to investigate. They prospected the
creek and were convinced there was sufficient gold to mine. They
left the territory in search of mining equipment and returned in
late summer 1860. Word spread, and within two years, a small
group of miners had settled at Gold Creek. Miners worked there
until the rich strikes at Bannack and Virginia City caused most of
them to leave for the Beaverhead country.

However, those who remained continued to mine. As placer
mining faded in the late 1860s, the miners turned to hydraulic
mining as "the ultimate form of placering." This involved the
use of high pressure hoses to wash away entire stream banks and
beds. Historian Otis Young observed the consequences of such
activities on the streams of the area: "Hydraulic mining dealt
effectively with remarkable quantities of low grade gravels, but
had the drawback of putting into circulation vast tonnage of
slickens, or sluice tailings. The easiest and cheapest way of
disposing of this effluvium was to drain it into the nearest major
watercourse."

"The nearest major watercourse" was ultimately the Clark
Fork River, and the effects of "hydraulicking" were soon
apparent. James A. Garfield Qater a U.S. president) traveled
down the Clark Fork in 1872 and wrote in his diary: "The
beautiful river has been permanently ruined by the miners; and

has been for three years as muddy as the Missouri. Before the
discovery of gold, it was as clear and pure as any mountain
stream could well be."

With discovery of gold at Gold Creek, miners began
prospecting other areas in the vicinity. Two miners, Humphreys
and Allison, discovered enough gold on the hillsides above Silver
Bow Creek in the very headwaters of the Clark Fork to entice
other miners into the area. By 1865, three mining districts had
been established near Butte. Miners built several ditches to supply
water to their claims. One ditch even brought water from east of
the Continental Divide. A.K. McClure, a correspondent for the
prestigious Engineering and Mining Journal, described the Deer
Lodge Valley as one of the most beautiful he had ever seen.
However, he soon came upon Silver Bow Creek where "the
muddy waters tell it is employed to aid the miner to produce
precious metals."

In the 1870s, the easily mined gold had mostly run out in the
Butte area. The real wealth— copper and silver ore— remained,
awaiting the coming of the railroads, heavy equipment, and
capita] investment. In the mid 1870s, the silver boom hit.
Railroads allowed miners to ship the silver ore to smelters outside
the area, and Montana became the second largest silver supplier
in the nation.

One of the most important silver-producing areas in the early
1880s was around Philipsburg. Historians suggest that, in its
time, the Granite Mountain Mine may have been the world's
greatest silver mine. However, as it goes with the mining
industry, the "boom" was followed by a predictable "bust"— the
bottom dropped out of the silver market when the government
stopped supporting silver prices. Miners left the silver camps,
and the remnants are today's "ghost towns."

Also left along Flint Creek and the upper Clark Fork were
mine tailings and smelter slag, laced with heavy metals and the
toxic by-products of chemical ore processing.

Copper found during silver mining in Butte in the 1870s did not
attract much interest because it was not particularly valuable.
However, this changed with the advent of electricity and the
telephone, which created a demand for copper wire and other
copper products. It became extremely valuable and made rich
men of W.A. Clark and Marcus Daly who had wisely invested in
the copper deposits.

As the copper industry expanded, reduction works and smelters
were established on Silver Bow and Warm Springs creeks where
water was plentiful. For almost 100 years, wastes from these
smelting activities were carried into the Clark Fork River. In
addition, other pollutants were dumped into nearby creeks,
including raw sewage and wastes from timber treatment and
packing plants. The Clark Fork River, its beauty so impressive to
earlier travelers, soon bore little resemblance to those early
descriptions. "Red water," rusty-colored water produced when
untreated metals in mining wastes (particularly iron) are carried
in suspension, occurred frequently. According to early accounts,
there were major fish kills between 1890-1900, and the only fish
in the upper Clark Fork were found in some tributary streams and
side sloughs of the river. This apparently was the situation until
the 1950s when the Anaconda Company constructed treatment

Clark Fork River (photo: JACK TUHOLSKE)

ponds on Silver Bow Creek in which wastes were settled out of
the water before it entered the upper Clark Fork. Company
officials also began adding lime to the river near Warm Springs to
reduce the acidity of the water, causing toxic metals to precipitate
and settle out.

River conditions began to improve, but the red water still
frequently occurred in the river .as far downstream as Bonner,
where it was somewhat diluted by the clean waters of the
Blackfoot River.

In 1955, the Montana Water Pollution Act was passed by the
34th Legislature. Until its passage, water pollution was primarily
a health problem as far as the state was concerned. No
recognition was given to its effects on other uses such as fish and
wildlife. The new act changed this. A water pollution council was
established, and by 1958 it had developed water quality
classifications for the streams of the state. The classifications
recognized fish and aquatic life as important water uses.

However, Silver Bow Creek and the Clark Fork received the
council's lowest classification— "agricultural and industrial
uses"— all the way to Bonner. To allow the various water users
time to develop improved waste treatment measures, a schedule
was established to upgrade this classification, by reaches,
between 1964 and 1969. Silver Bow Creek and the Clark Fork
between Warm Springs Creek and the Little Blackfoot River
would retain their original classifications. However, from the
Little Blackfoot to Bonner, the Clark Fork could be upgraded to
include fish and wildlife uses. Various water users were given
time to develop improved waste treatment measures.

At least it was a start. However, red water continued to flow
down the Clark Fork during the 1960s. In 1967, the state adopted
new water quality standards in response to the Water Quality Act
of 1965. These new standards were approved by the federal
government in 1968. The standards required a reclassification of
portions of the upper Clark Fork. Silver Bow Creek retained its
original classification. However, the mainstem Clark Fork was
upgraded so that most of the river was classified to allow for the
"...growth and propagation of salmonid fish and associated
aquatic life...." The river between Warm Springs Creek and the
Little Blackfoot River was classified somewhat lower— to allow
for "growth and marginal propagation of fish and associated
aquatic life. ... " Thus, the potential for improvement continued.

Today the river has basically the same classifications. There
are, however, two classifications between Warm Springs Creek
and the Little Blackfoot. The river between Deer Lodge and the
Little Blackfoot has been upgraded to remove the term
"marginal." The upper reach from Warm Springs Creek to Deer
Lodge continues to contain this term; however, an upgraded
classification is certainly appropriate considering the greatly
improved stream conditions.

The upgrading of stream classifications and the hint of legal
recognition of the importance of fish and wildlife were great
strides forward and perhaps provided the impetus for eventually
reclaiming the river. The classifications were goals, but the
principal problems remained.

In 1969, the state established implementation schedules for
pollution abatement in the upper Clark Fork which included the
cleanup of mining wastes. The Anaconda Company was given

until July 1972 to comply with the existing water quality
standards, which meant it had to adequately treat all its wastes.
New treatment facilities were installed and the real cleansing of
the river began.

Red water soil occurs occasionally during high flows which are
not retained by the pond treatment system. As recently as July
1987, a fish kill occurred in the upper river due to a thunderstorm
which washed tailings directly into the river. Compared with the
past, these are infrequent events, but the potential is still there.

Effects of Anaconda's new waste treatment facilities soon
became apparent. River fish populations made a significant
comeback. During the late 1960s and as recently as 1972,
Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks (DFWP) biologists found
no fish in the Clark Fork River when they sampled a two-mile
section of stream immediately below Warm Springs Creek (and
the Anaconda settling ponds). Since then, the population has
increased substantially. By 1986, biologists estimated 2,300
brown trout per mile in the same reach— the highest concentration
per mile of brown trout in the entire upper Clark Fork. This
illustrates the great resilience of biological populations when
habitat conditions improve. From a water quality standpoint, the
river has made a dramatic recovery.

The Ranchers

Early travelers in the upper Clark Fork repeatedly mentioned
the fine grasslands, particularly in the Deer Lodge and Flint
Creek valleys. Wildlife apparendy flourished in these valleys,
and it was not long before settlers took advantage of the areas for
livestock production. By the mid- 1860s, cattle were thriving in
the upper river valleys. Naturally, the first ranches were
established along the most sheltered and best water courses, many
bordered by natural hay meadows. In 1865, Conrad Kohrs
purchased the holdings of Johnny Grant and soon had the largest

cattle holding in the Northwest. Kohrs first visited the Deer
Lodge Valley in the early 1860s and made the following
observation about the stream which flowed through the valley:
"It [the Deer Lodge River] was a beautiful stream, the water
clear and sparkling and alive with the finest trout, and the same
was true of every stream we crossed. The valley was full of
antelope and many herds of fat cattle belonging to the
mountaineers who lived there."

By the mid- 1860s, cattle ranchers in the Deer Lodge Valley
were prospering. Ranchers sold their cattle to local miners,
Indians, military personnel, and wagon trains. With the coming
of the railroad, cattle were sold in distant markets. The cattle
industry boomed during the 1870s and early 1880s. The Deer
Lodge Valley supported large herds, but the business also began
to center on the vast ranges east of the mountains.

The mountain valley ranges eventually became overcrowded
and subsequendy overgrazed. The combination of an extremely
severe winter in 1886-87, overstocked ranges, and a depressed
cattle market destroyed the open-range cattle industry. Ranchers
who survived, like Conrad Kohrs, rebuilt their operations on a
smaller, more diversified, scale, similar to that of the 1860s.

Sheep production was also important in the upper Clark Fork.
From the beginning of settlement in the valleys, sheep provided
mutton to the mining camps. Several large cattle operations also
had bands of sheep, including Conrad Kohrs and W. A. Clark. By
1875, Deer Lodge County had over 5,000 sheep, most of them
owned by Peter Valiton. Again, railroad access encouraged
raising sheep for distant markets. Sheep operations expanded in
the 1890s. By the 1950s, Deer Lodge was the Rambouillet sheep
capital of the world, due primarily to the early efforts of the
Williams and Paully (later Williams-Tavenner) Ranch. However,
sheep imports from Australia after 1950 soon became too
competitive, and large-scale sheep production declined after the

mid-1950s.

Today, ranching is still important to the social and economic
structure of the upper Clark Fork valleys, despite the ups and
downs of the weather and livestock markets.

Grain crops and hay were well established in the Deer Lodge
and Flint Creek valleys by 1870. Commercial agriculture
appeared in the 1880s and by the 1890s, the area was known for
its progressive farming practices, including many "firsts" in
farming techniques. Beginning in the late 1800s, irrigation played
an important role in development of agriculture in the upper
Clark Fork valleys. However, despite the many streams, water
shortages occurred, the worst during the drought of the 1930s.
Because the doctrine of prior appropriation was the water law of
the mining camps, the same rules applied to the use of water for
irrigation. "First in time" was "first in right," and water users
who had first priority controlled the available water.

The earliest water rights recorded were those of the ditch
companies in the 1860s and '70s, of which Conrad Kohrs' Rock
Creek Ditch Company was a major one. Continuing into the 20th

Fisheries surveys in 1972 found no fish in a section of
the Clark Fork immediately below Warm Springs
Creek. The most recent survey (1986) showed 2,300
brown trout per mile. From a water quality stand-
point, the river has made a dramatic recovery.

century, other water users organized into irrigation companies for
more effective control and utilization of water. Water was
diverted from numerous tributaries as well as from the Clark
Fork itself. In those early years, all water was distributed by
gravity ditch systems.

Today, appropriation and diversion of water continue in the
upper Clark Fork Basin. Sprinkler systems, using pumped water,
have opened new lands to irrigated crops. Thus, stream
depletions, which began in the mid- 1800s, continue today. Many
streams, including portions of the Clark Fork itself, become
severely dewatered; in dry years, irrigation takes practically all of
the water out of some streams.

Water rights for many of these diversions have priority dates
going as far back as the 1860s and '70s, and they are as valid
today as they were then.

Fish populations and, consequently, fishing and recreation,
cannot be maintained under conditions of frequent stream
dewatering. Fish and other aquatic life require a continuous water
supply.

The water supply in the upper Clark Fork is limited and always
has been. Ever since man arrived in the upper valleys, water
shortages have existed, some more severe than others. Even
today, competition for available water continues. New permits
for diversion rights are issued by state government on streams
already heavily utilized by those claiming earlier rights. Although
these new permits do not have the senior priority dates of those
earlier water rights, they have a higher priority than any right
existing for fish and wildlife. Fish and wildlife currently have no
water right in the mainstem Clark Fork or most of its tributaries
(the Big Blackfoot and Rock Creek near Clinton are exceptions).
And the only legal means of securing such instream rights is
through a process known as water reservations.

The Reservations

Water reservations are a form of water right granted by the
Board of Natural Resources and Conservation to any agency or
political subdivision of the state of Montana or the United States
for existing or future beneficial uses, or to maintain a minimum
flow, level, or quality of water. Water reservations were
authorized by the 1973 Water Use Act, Montana's current water
law. The act also declared (for the first time by statute) that fish,
wildlife, and recreation were legal beneficial users of the state's
waters.

Water reservation applications are submitted to the Department
of Natural Resources and Conservation. The DFWP has prepared
and submitted an application for instream flow reservations in the
upper Clark Fork River and 17 tributary streams from Warm
Springs Creek to Milltown Dam near Bonner (see map and table).

DFWP INSTREAM FLOW REQUESTS

Stream

Flow Requests (cfs)

Clark Fork River

Reach #1

180

Reach #2

400

Reach #3

500

Reach #4

600

Warm Springs Creek

Reach #1

Reach #2

Barker Creek

Cable Creek

Storm Lake Creek

Twin Lakes Creek

Lost Creek

Little Blackfoot River

Reach #1

Reach #2

Snowshoe Creek

Dog Creek

Racetrack Creek

Reach #1

Reach #2

Dempsey Creek

3.5

Gold Creek

Flint Creek

Reach #1

Reach #2

Boulder Creek

North Fork Flint Creek

Stuart Mill Creek

Harvey Creek

The requests are intended to protect fish and wildlife populations
by (1) preventing further depletion of the stream flow and (2)
maintaining existing water quality.

If granted, the reservations will not make more water occur in
the streams. But they will prevent further dewatering through use
of the miners' old doctrine "first in time is first in right." The
priority dates of the reservations would be senior to any permits
issued by the state after the reservations are granted. In other
words, the department would have a "prior right" to use the
water instream. THIS "RIGHT" WOULD IN NO WAY
INTERFERE WITH WATER RIGHTS ALREADY IN
EFFECT AT THE TIME THE RESERVATIONS ARE
GRANTED. The law simply does not allow that to happen.
Older water rights will always have priority over instream
reservations. This means that in a dry year, with low stream flow,
senior water users could still take all the water from the streams.
The reservations preserve the status quo; they do not increase
water availability.

The water quality situation is similar to that of water quantity.
Since the reservations will only maintain the streams' existing
flow conditions (as they vary from year to year), they will only
help maintain existing water quality by diluting the lingering toxic
mining wastes still entering the streams. High flows each spring
cause the toxic deposits along the Clark Fork River's floodplain
to be resuspended and carried in the water. Toxicity due to
copper is believed to suppress river fish populations. Copper
concentrations commonly exceed the Environmental Protection

Agency's criteria for some fish species in the river. This situation
will persist as long as mining wastes are present in the drainage.

The extent of mining wastes contamination and methods of
dealing with the problem are being evaluated through the
"Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and
Liability Act," the so-called "Superfund." Silver Bow Creek,
the old Anaconda Smelter site, Milltown Reservoir, and the
upper Clark Fork River's floodplain are on the Superfund
cleanup list. But cleanup is a long-term process— it may be
decades before ultimate recovery of the river and its fisheries will
be achieved. Yet, the potential is there— to improve the Clark
Fork and establish a first-class fishing and recreation stream
throughout its length. Of concern, however, is the danger of
stream flows falling even lower because of new depletions,
causing the fisheries to be even more hard-pressed to survive than
they are today.

The instream flow reservations will protect existing stream
flows and water quality, thus ensuring at least the current level of
use and enjoyment of the river. These water reservations,
combined with eventual reclamation of mining wastes, should
allow the Clark Fork of the future to be an even better
recreational stream.

In fact, without instream flow reservations, the benefits of
reclamation may not be fully realized.

Thus the story continues. Perhaps historians will recall the next
hundred years as a time when the Clark Fork regained life, when
it shed the yoke of the previous century's uncaring attitude and
became again "...a beautiful stream, the water clear and
sparkling and alive with the finest trout.... "■

• The author is indebted to Man' C. Horstman, Missoula, who
compiled the historical information about mining and ranching
presented in this article, through an agreement with the
department's Missoula office. Her 1984 paper, "Historical
Events Associated with the Upper Clark Fork Drainage, ' ' is
available free from the Conservation Education Division, Depart-
ment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1420 East Sixth; Helena, MT
59620.— Liter Spence

REFERENCES

Environmental Protection Agency, "A Water Quality Study of the
Upper Clark Fork River and Selected Tributaries," Region Vm,
Denver, 39 pp. plus appendices, 1972.

Horstman, Mary C, "Historical Events Associated with the Upper
Clark Fork Drainage." prepared for the Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife and Parks, Region 2, Missoula, Montana, under Project 8241,
1984.

Spindler, J.C., "An Extensive Chemical, Physical, Bacteriological, and
Biological Survey— Columbia River Drainage in Montana," State
Board of Health, Water Pollution Control Report No. 59-1, 111 pp.,
1959.

Thomas, Bill, "American Rivers, A Natural History," W.W. Norton &
Co., Inc., pp. 9-19, 1978.

Thomas, W.P., "Clark Fork River Pollution Problems— A Chronolo-
gy," Montana Department of Fish. Wildlife and Parks, Missoula.
Montana, 2 pp. mimeo. not dated.

Thomas, W.P., "The River That Represents Montana," Montana
Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Missoula, Montana, 9 pp.
mimeo, not dated.

THE CATCHALL

Pheasants Forever

During spring of 1987, the first
Pheasants Forever (PF) chapter in Mon-
tana, the Flathead Chapter, was orga-
nized at a fund-raising banquet in Kali-
spell. Soon after, fund-raising banquets
were conducted in Ronan (Mission Val-
ley Chapter), Choteau (Teton Chapter)
and Rudyard (Northcentral Chapter).
Many more communities throughout the
state have expressed an interest in
organizing chapters.

According to PF's quarterly publica-
tion, Pheasants Forever, the purpose of
the organization is to restore pheasant
populations throughout the United
States, to develop and restore habitat for
use by pheasants, and to educate the
public about the need and benefits
thereof. PF has a national membership
of more than 25,000 sportsmen, spread
among some 140 chapters. To date,
these chapters have completed more
than 3,300 projects on thousands of
acres across the country.

In Montana, PF chapters are in the
process of raising funds for local needs.
PF allows the majority of money raised
by a chapter to remain within that
chapter for its own projects. Immediate
concerns of Montana's four PF chapters
include habitat enhancement and public
education and awareness programs.
Current habitat projects are directed
toward establishing woody cover, nest-
ing cover, and food plots. In addition, a
percentage of funds raised will be
available for statewide programs, such
as promoting legislation to aid in pheas-
ant habitat restoration.

As PF chapters increase in member-
ship and initiate more projects across
the state, an increase in the amount of
habitat available to the wily ringneck
may truly mean... Pheasants Forever!—
Brian Giddings, research aide, Kali-
spell

Safari Club Donates Dollars

Safari Club International (SCI) is an
organization that backs up promises
with cash. The SCI has been pumping
dollars into preserving Montana's wild-
life for years. The club recently funded
construction of bear traps and purchase

of a capture gun to help game wardens
in southern Montana. Ron Carlson, Big
Timber game warden, said the club was
asked for materials for two traps
($2,400) and a complete capture gun kit
(about $800). Carlson said if the club
would donate the material, wardens
would build the traps. It did— and they
did.

The traps were designed by Carlson
and Livingston warden Hank Fabich,
and Fabich did most of the construction.
Carlson said it took almost a year to
complete the traps which are being used
to trap both grizzly and black bears.
One went to Region 3 (Bozeman) and
the other to Region 5 (Billings).

The request for funds went first to
Dennis Moos, a Big Timber resident
active in the Montana Chapter of SCI.
Roger Warwick was club president at
the time and was succeeded by Dr.
Lance Parker, who continued to support
the grant.

As Carlson notes, thanks is overdue,

ALL BOOKED UP??

MO's binders will
ensure less of a mess

Order yours today— just $6,
prepaid, from MONTANA
OUTDOORS, Department of
Fish, Wildlife and Parks;
Helena, MT 59620.

*0i^

but the thanks that goes out to Moos,
Warwick, Parker, the SCI board, and
general membership is nonetheless sin-

cere.

BOOK REVIEWS

ELK TALK, by Don Laubach and
Mark Henckel, E.L.K., Inc., Box 85,
Gardiner, MT 59030; 1987, 202
pages, $12.95 (plus $1.50 postage),
soft cover.

As the title suggests, "Elk Talk" is
primarily a book about calling elk—
about duplicating the sounds that bulls,
cows, and calves make. But it's much
more than that— it's a valuable refer-
ence on elk biology and behavior, a
comprehensive digest of elk hunting
tactics and techniques, and a tribute to a
majestic animal that many people con-
sider to be Montana's ultimate big game
trophy.

Don Laubach and Mark Henckel are
uniquely qualified to write such a book.
Laubach, a dedicated archer, has taken
12 elk in the last 12 years with bow and
arrow, the last of them a six-point bull.
A few years ago, he invented a cow call
which has added a whole new dimen-
sion to elk hunting; he has also designed
a new bugle call that is effective and
easy to use. Henckel, who has been
outdoor editor of the Billings Gazette
for the past 15 years, is an avid elk
hunter in both archery and rifle seasons.
He's an award- winning writer and au-
thor of "A Hunter's Guide to Mon-
tana."

In "Elk Talk," the authors drew on
their extensive experience hunting elk in
Montana, but also marshaled the exper-
tise of several elk biologists and expert
hunters— including Terry Lonner and
Dr. Richard Mackie in the former
category, and Bill Hoppe, Vince Yan-
none, and Jim Zumbo in the latter. The
result is a practical, easy-to-read guide
to finding, calling, and hunting elk with
a rifle, bow and arrow, or camera.

In addition to chapters on calf talk,
cow talk, and bull talk, the book
includes sections on reading sign, stand-

ing and stalking, map work, care of
downed game, and planning your hunt.
Whether you're new to the elk hunting
game or a seasoned veteran, this book
should be in your library.— Dave Books

RESTORING AMERICA'S WILD-
LIFE, U.S. Department of the Interi-
or, Fish and Wildlife Service, Super-
intendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office. Washington, D.C.
20402-9325; 1987, 394 pages, $15
hard cover (includes postage).

' ' Restoring America ' s Wildlife "
chronicles 50 years of wildlife conser-
vation in America. Its publication marks
the 50-year anniversary of the Federal
Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, a
far-sighted program created in 1937 by
some far-sighted individuals who helped
engineer the world's most remarkable
rebound of native wildlife. Under this
conservation program, popularly known
as the "Pittman-Robertson" program,
dozens of the nation's wild birds and
mammals have re-emerged to record
levels.

Sportsmen and women alone have
funded this assistance to state wildlife
management, land acquisition, and re-
search programs through Pittman-
Robertson 's unique funding arrange-
ment. President Ronald Reagan's intro-
duction to the book emphasizes the
importance of those dollars: "Pittman-
Robertson 's 50th anniversary is an ideal
time to take stock of what this remark-
able program has accomplished, what
still needs to be done, and what the
future seems to hold for our wildlife in a
period of rapid change."

"Restoring America's Wildlife" fea-
tures conservation luminaries such as
Joe Linduska on the wood duck and
Maurice Hornocker and Howard Quig-
ley on the mountain lion. Montanans are
not ignored: Dr. Richard J. Mackie,
coordinator of statewide deer research
studies for the Montana Department of
Fish, Wildlife and Parks, wrote the
mule deer chapter; Dr. L. Jack Lyon,
research project leader at the Inter-
mountain Research Station in Missoula,
collaborated with Dr. Jack Ward
Thomas on the elk section.

To anyone seeking illumination of the
"big picture" of wildlife conservation
in the United States during the past 50
years, "Restoring America's Wildlife"
should go in the "must-read" stack.

NONGAME NEWS

THOSE LONG WINTER
NIGHTS

Many nongame animals have devel-
oped special adaptations to survive
Montana winters. Not everyone can
leave and head to the sunny climates of
Arizona or Mexico. Temperature regu-
lation during the short winter days and
the long winter nights becomes a serious
factor when the temperature drops be-
low zero. Most of the larger mammals
and overwintering birds have good insu-
lation with long, dense fur or feathers
and a thick layer of fat. The legs of the
ptarmigan and the snowy owl become
heavily feathered in winter.

Many animals, such as the otter,
mink, and muskrat, spend considerable
time in cold water even during the
winter months. Although they lose heat
through their foot pads and nose, their
bodies are insulated by a layer of air
trapped by their fur.

Some animals avoid the cold tempera-
tures by spending as much time as
possible beneath the snow. Voles, mice,
and shrews use runways and nests under
the snow (called the subnivean environ-
ment) to insulate them from the cold.

Ptarmigan dig tunnels as roost sites
into the snowbanks to avoid the cold.

A few species avoid the cold months
altogether by hibernating. Ground
squirrels and marmots are true hibernat-
ors and spend long periods of dormancy
in their burrows. They do not store food
but use stored fat as their energy source.

Although not related to temperature
change, a few animals change color
during winter. The short-tailed weasel
or ermine changes from the brown coat
of summer to all white with a black-
tipped tail. The color change is trig-

gered by the decrease in daylight and is
independent of temperature. The white-
tailed ptarmigan also changes from
brown to white in the winter. The
snowshoe hare's winter coat appears
white but is actually tricolored— from
dark gray to tawny brown to white. The
hare's dense coat also provides good
insulation; the heat retention capacity is
27% greater in winter than in summer.—
Marilyn Wood, DFWP biologist, Kali-
spell

AROUND THE STATE

In an effort to reduce the problems of
feral/stray cat predation on small birds
and mammals in the Billings area, the
Yellowstone Valley Audubon Society
donated funds to the city of Billings to
purchase 3,000 cat bells. The double
bells are provided on request, free, to
people licensing their cats. "Bells for
Birds' ' will attempt to decrease losses of
birds and mammals to free-roaming
cats, and raise the consciousness of cat
owners around the state's biggest city.

Another service available from the
city of Billings is an extensive Wildlife
Damage Control Library. This library
contains a large collection of reprints
and pamphlets on non-lethal and
humane capture techniques for control-
ling nuisance wildlife in urban and
agricultural areas. For more informa-
tion or reprints, contact Dave Pauli,
superintendent, Department of Animal
Shelter, City of Billings, P.O. Box
1178; Billings, MT 59103.

DISCRIMINATING TASTES

Many of us feed birds during the
winter, and everyone has his or her own

ptarmigan

JAN BONHAM METZMAKER

ideas about what birds prefer. While
most agree that sunflower seeds are an
excellent choice, those who feed birds
disagree about which type our most
common feeder visitors favor— the
large, striped variety, or the smaller,
black (oil) seeds.

The Flathead Audubon Society has
honored both sides of the issue by
offering both seed types during its
annual sunflower seed sales. However,
this changed in 1987, based on results of
an experiment conducted by Brent
Mitchell of Kalispell, who compared the
selection of seed types by birds present-
ed with a choice. The winner? Black, or
oil, seeds were preferred, 5-to-l.

Mitchell tested preferences in two
ways. In one test, he split a large
window feeder into three compart-
ments. He provided the two seed types,
one cup at a time, in the end compart-
ments, while he left the center unit
empty. He alternated location of the two
seed types. Then he recorded the type of
seed taken by each bird which visited
the feeder during a series of repeated
10-minute surveys. He conducted a
similar experiment on two cleared areas
on the ground; once again he provided
the two types in equal amounts, alternat-
ing between the two plots.

In both feeding situations, birds
selected the black seeds far more often
than the striped seeds. Red-breasted
nuthatches and mountain and black-
capped chickadees selected the black
seeds 85%-90% of the time. When
feeding on the ground, evening gros-
beaks (infamous for their sunflower
seed gluttony) always landed on the
black seeds first and would not shift to
the other seeds until the black seed area
became too crowded or until few black
seeds remained.

What are the reasons for this prefer-
ence? Many of these birds may key in
on the black seeds because they are
smaller and closer in size to the seeds on
which the birds naturally feed. (Black
seeds averaged 1,727 seeds per cup,
compared with only 815 striped seeds
per cup.) While the edible portion of the
striped seed is nearly twice the size of
the black seed, the oil seeds could have
a higher nutritional value, offsetting the
additional effort the birds must expend
to shell the seeds. While more experi-
ments need to be conducted, the
Flathead Audubon Society was con-
vinced: They offered only black seeds
during their 1987 seed sale.

MONTANA OUTDOORS INDEX

The major items published in Mon-
tana Outdoors in 1987 are indexed
below. Extra copies of all '87 issues are
available— $1.50 each, plus 25 cents for
postage. Some earlier back issues are
available at the same price.

To inquire about or order a back issue
write: Back Issues, Montana Outdoors,
Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks,
930 Custer Ave. West; Helena, MT
59620.

BOOKS REVIEWED

Montana's Early-Day Rangers— by

Robert C. (Bert) Gildart (March/ April).

The Only Good Bear is a Dead
Bear: A Collection of the West's Best
Bear Stories— by Jeanette Prodgers
(March/ April).

Clearing— by Matthew Hansen
(May /June).

Prairie Wildflowers— by Dr. Dee
Strickler (May /June).

Yellowstone Is...— by Mike Logan
(July/ August).

Montana's Flathead Country— by
Robert C. (Bert) Gildart (July /August).

The Madison River— by Craig
Mathews and Gary LaFontaine
(July /August).

Elk Talk— by Don Laubach and
Mark Henckel (Nov. /Dec).

Restoring America's Wildlife— U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service (Nov. /Dec).

FISH/FISHING/WATER

Perspectives— "Everyman's Old
Man of the River"— If Dan Bailey was
the high priest of fly-fishing, Pat Barnes
is a most worthy deacon (Tom Palmer,
March/ April).

The Search for Moby Pike-
Searching for the toothy pike in Canyon
Ferry Reservoir was only one research
project undertaken by students at a
summer science camp (Gil Alexander,

ABCs for a
Season of Superlatives

Most Appropriate

Best Buy

Most Colorful

Montana Outdoors— the

Merriest Christmas ever

for you and yours

March/ April).

Piscatorial Prophecies— The number
of theories to explain fish distribution
trends on the Clark Fork are nearly as
numerous as the trout (Glenn Phillips,
March/ April).

Holton Named "Fish Pro"— George
Holton is selected as "Fisheries Profes-
sional of the Year." The Catchall
(March/ April).

Thanks, Art Whitney— Art Whitney
ends a 35-year career with the depart-
ment's Fisheries Division. The Catchall
(March/ April).

Skipper's Inspection List— Before
the first launch of the season, all
watercraft should be thoroughly in-
spected. The Catchall (Tim Pool,
March/ April).

Spring Creeks— Precious Secrets-
Montana's spring creeks are special to
many people, for many different rea-
sons (Janet Decker-Hess, illustrated by
Shirley Cleary, May /June).

Perspectives — "Are They at Melrose
Yet?"— Unless you live near salmonfly
streams, have a flexible schedule, and
reliable informants, it's not easy to "catch
the hatch" (Jim Belsey, illustrated by
Harvey Eckert, May /June).

What's Bugging That Fish?— The
department's Fish Health Lab has the
answer— and they welcome calls from
concerned fishermen (Jim Peterson,
May /June).

The One-That-Didn't-Get-Away
Club— 1986— Montana's 1986 record-
setting fish (May /June).

How the Cutthroats Reached Mon-
tana—What trout are really native to
Montana, and how they got here (Jim
Roscoe, May /June).

A Fish Called Cisco— The cisco is the
long awaited new forage fish in Fort Peck
Reservoir (Bill Wiedenheft, May /June).

Voluntary Reservations on the
Smith— Under a voluntary reservation
system, users decide what sort of float-
ing experience they want to have. The
Catchall (Gary "Woody" Baxter,
May /June).

Mandibles— A newcomer to the
Flathead Lake aquatic community— the
opossum shrimp— has jaws that are
quick and hungry (Robert T. Bukantis
and Janet Grinde Bukantis, illustrated
by Larry E. Hughes, July /August).

Perspectives— "Of Nature and a

River"— The lushness and vigor of a
river's spring had thinned to reveal an-
other world of icy blue waters and fall's
ashen colors (Greg Noose, Sept./Oct.).

Clark Fork Rj —Prescription for
Renewal?— Western Montana's Clark
Fork is a troubled stream. Is there hope
for the future? (Liter Spence, Nov. /Dec).

On the Road to Fort Peck Lake—
The infamous gumbo may become an
inconvenience of the past (Tom Palmer,
Nov. /Dec).

GAME/HUNTING

Elk Under the Wire— A powerline
corridor, new roads, and their effect on
elk hunting in the Clark Fork drainage
of west central Montana (Mike Thomp-
son, illustrated by Robert Spannring,
March/ April).

Black or Grizzly?— Eighteen pic-
tures of black or grizzly bears test and
improve your identification skills
(Wayne Kasworm, May/June).

Volunteers Make it Work-
Shooting and hunting sports are safer in
Montana because of the efforts of 700
dedicated volunteer hunter safety in-
structors (Tim Pool, July/ August).

A Big Boost to the Bighorn-
Bighorn sheep were the real winners in
auctions for bighorn sheep licenses. The
Catchall (Bill Thomas, May /June).

The Here and Now Happy Hunting
Ground— The Missouri Breaks is a
haven for wildlife and it supports one of
the world's outstanding elk herds (Tom
Palmer, Sept./Oct.).

Montana's Trophy Bonanza— As
the updated Boone and Crockett records
prove, Montana continues its outstand-
ing performance in producing super-
lative trophy game for the sport hunter
(Norman C. Roettger, Jr., Sept./Oct.).

Caping in the Field— Bagging the
trophy elk that you want to have mounted
is only the first step (Gerry Schroeder,
Sept./Oct.).

On Safari for Prairie Goats— The
quarry, the chase, the stealth, the gran-
deur of the open plains— in Montana,
hunting antelope is the closest thing we
have to an African safari (Michael
Korn, Sept./Oct.).

TIP-MONT Spells Success— A toll-
free number has aided law enforcement
officers in apprehending poachers. The
Catchall (Sept./Oct.).

Bighorns on the Rise— Time nearly
marched over the bighorn sheep. But
bighorns haven't merely rebounded in
Montana, they have reclaimed it (Tom

Palmer, Sept./Oct.).
Perspectives— "Old and Young"—

The young hunter has much to learn; the
older hunter has much to share (Don
Laubach and Mark Henckel, illustrated
by Robert Neaves, Nov. /Dec).

GENERAL

Special Photo Issue— (Jan. /Feb.).

The Bird's-Eye View of Lewis and
Clark— When the Corps of Discovery
entered what is now Montana, Meri-
wether Lewis began what turned into
Montana's first inventory of birds (Ken
Walcheck, March/April).

Cruwys' "Redheads" Wins— Roger
Cruwys' painting, "Evening Arrival-
Redheads," won Montana's second an-
nual waterfowl stamp contest (Tom
Palmer, March/ April).

Dancing Across the Waves— The
popularity of sailboarding— the "new-
est" of water sports— is soaring in
Montana (Bill Stroud and Jerry Walker,
May /June).

Hegstad Leaves; Howell Arrives—
Spencer Hegstad resigns as Commission
chairman; governor appoints F.W.
"Bill" Howell to Commission. The
Catchall (Tom Palmer, May /June).

An Outdoor Classroom for Every-
one—The Glacier institute offers Glacier
National Park as a classroom. The Catch-
all (Ursula Mattson, May/June).

See You in Bannack— Frontier days
revisited in a July celebration (Dick
Ellis, July /August).

Perspectives—" 'See' First"— To
"see" the mosaic of land and owner
requires effort (Tom Pick, illustrated by
Diane Nugent, July /August).

Quarriers of Stone— Stone- Age peo-
ples in Montana mined chert, a glassy
rock from which they made tools (Les
Davis, July /August).

Montana's Centennial— A Time to
Smell the Flowers— If a fund-raising
drive is successful, Montana's Capitol
will have an expanded floral display for
the centennial. The Catchall (Tom Pal-
mer, July /August).

The Man Who Moved Mountains—
On the 100th anniversary of his birth,
it's appropriate to remember Aldo Leo-
pold's contributions to the art and
science of resource conservation (Tom
Butts, Sept./Oct.).

Hegstad, Aderhold Honored— The
Montana Wildlife Federation recog-
nized Spencer Hegstad as "Conserva-
tionist of the Year" and Mike Aderhold
as "Conservation Communicator of the

Year." The Catchall (Sept./Oct.).

The Wolf at My Door— The image of
the wolf and the sound of a door
opening are still vivid, even after 45
years (Rand Robbin, Nov. /Dec).

WILDLIFE

Nongame News

March/ April— great gray owl, rubber
boa and plains hognose snakes, check-
off reminder, good reading.

May /June— nongame symposium.

July/August— how some nongame
animals cope with summer heat; fences
and hummingbirds.

Sept./Oct.— bird names, Nongame
Wildlife Program funding.

Nov. /Dec— birds' seed preferences,
how some nongame animals cope with
winter, free bells for cats.

Seeker of Solace— What Montana's
common loons need most is a httle peace
and quiet (Don Skaar, March/ April).

A "Bully" Idea— A ranch near Du-
puyer is an ideal site for conservation-
oriented research sponsored by the
Boone and Crockett Club. The Catchall
(Carol Susan Woodruff, March/ April).

DU— Launching Waterfowl's Life-
boat—In three years, Ducks Unlimited
has spent $2 million on wetland devel-
opment in Montana (Tom Palmer,
May /June).

WANTED: The Masked Stranger—
The black-footed ferret is wanted— alive,
wild, and free (Dennis Flath, illustrated
by Karen Ray Brower, July/ August).

Here's to the Sportsman!— This
year marks the 50th anniversary of the
Pittman-Robertson Act, a piece of legis-
lation that has made a lasting difference
to America's wildlife resource (Bill
Phippen, July /August).

Beavers— Big and Busy— One of 101
mammals in Montana, the beaver can
weigh more than 60 pounds (Vince
Yannone, July /August).

Goats, Curly Bear, and Common
Sense— From the standpoint of wildlife
habitat, one would be hard pressed to
find a stretch of country offering more
than the Badger-Two Medicine (Gary
Olson, July/August).

All for the Wolf— Wolf conservation
in Montana is at a crossroads (Mike
Aderhold, Sept./Oct.).

Identification of Montana's Birds
of Prey— A guide to Montana's day-
flying birds of prey— hawks, falcons,
eagles, and vultures (Kristi DuBois and
Dale Becker, illustrated by Joe Thorn-
brugh, Nov. /Dec).

Identification of Montana's

Birds of Prey

"Big Hole River," by Joe Thornbrugh. Signed and numbered prints are available at selected galleries or directly from the publisher:
Whitney Hibbard, 6013 Highway 12 West; Helena, MT 59601. Image size is 17-1/4 inches by 30 inches and retail price is $95.

by
Kristi DuBois and Dale Becker
illustrated by Joe Thornbrugh

The following is a guide to help you identify Montana's
diurnal (active during the day) birds of prey (hawks,
falcons, eagles, and vultures). Birds of prey are also
called "raptors," because they prey on other animals for
food. Birds of prey have large, hooked beaks; long, sharp
talons (claws); and excellent vision, all adaptations for a
predatory life style.

Even avid birders often misidentify birds of prey
because their color varies greatly, even within the same
species. This guide does not show all possible color

variations, but it describes the most reliable characteris-
tics for distinguishing between species. Most people
rely on size and overall color to identify a bird, but these
are the least reliable criteria for birds of prey. Size is
often hard to judge accurately, and overall color varies.
Some species, such as the Cooper's and sharp-shinned
hawks, are so difficult to distinguish that biologists who
band hundreds of them each year disagree on how best
to identify them. The calls of hawks can sometimes be
very helpful, so don't overlook recordings of bird songs
as a reference source.

No range maps are provided because most of the
species described in this article range over most of
Montana, either during nesting or migration.

Whether you are a bird-watcher, photographer, or
someone who just enjoys being outside, remember that
birds of prey require solitude. Most birds of prey are
intolerant of man, especially during the nesting season.
Federal and state laws prohibit killing birds of prey;
destroying their nests; possessing feathers, mounted
birds, or eggs; or keeping live birds in captivity without
special permits. Enjoy them from a distance, so we can
all continue to see them. If you find an injured bird, call a
Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks warden or
biologist to capture it, as even the small species can do
damage with their sharp talons. Birds of prey have very
special needs, so only certified rehabilitators and falcon-
ers are allowed to care for them.

All birds of prey have the same basic needs: habitat for
nesting, roosting, and foraging, and an adequate food
supply. Their greatest threat is man — through habitat
destruction, chemical contamination, and illegal shoot-
ing. Birds of prey primarily eat the abundant small
mammals and birds considered "pests" by man, such as
jackrabbits, ground squirrels, mice, pigeons, and star-
lings. Although raptors occasionally kill prey that is
prized by man, such as game species and livestock, the
effects of such losses are usually far outweighed by the
numbers of pest species on which they prey. Montan-
ans are privileged to be able to enjoy the beauty of an
eagle on the wing. The future of birds of prey in the Big
Sky is in our hands.

SUGGESTED READING

The following reading list provided most of the informa-
tion for the species descriptions in this article. Many
other excellent books and articles are available from
libraries and bookstores.

General References:

Bent, A.C., "Life Histories of North American Birds of
Prey," two volumes, Dover Publications, New York; Vol.
1—409 pp., Vol. 2—482 pp. (reprints of the original
editions published in 1937 and 1938), 1961.
Brown, L, "Eagles," Arco Publishing Company, Inc.,
New York, 96 pp., 1970.

Brown, L and D. Amadon, "Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons
of the World," two volumes, McGraw-Hill Book Compa-
ny, New York, 946 pp., 1968.

Cade, Tom J., "The Falcons of the World," Cornell
University Press, Ithaca, New York, 188 pp., 1982.
Clark, W.S. and M.E. Pramstaller, "Field I.D. Guide for
North American Raptors," Raptor Information Center,
National Wildlife Federation, 1412 Sixteenth St. N.W.,
Washington, D.C. 20036, 1980.

Clark, W.S. and B.K. Wheeler, "Peterson Field Guides-
Hawks," Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 198 pp.,
1987.

Craighead, J.J. and F.C. Craighead, Jr., "Hawks, Owls
and Wildlife," Dover Publications, New York, 443 pp.
(reprint of the original 1956 edition), 1969.
Grossman, M.L and J.H. Hamlet, "Birds of Prey of the
World," Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., New York, 1964.
Olendorff, R.R., "Golden Eagle Country," Alfred A.
Knopf, New York, 202 pp., 1975.
Parnall, P., "The Daywatchers," MacMillan Publishing
Co., New York, 127 pp., 1984.

Terres, J.K., "The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of
North American Birds," Alfred A. Knopf, New York,
1,109 pp., 1980.

Children's Books:

Patent, D.H., "Where the Bald Eagles Gather," Clarion
Books, 56 pp., 1984.

Davis, B., "Biography of a Fish Hawk," G.P. Putnam's
Sons, New York, 63 pp., 1977.

Technical:

Newton, I., "Population Ecology of Raptors," Buteo
Books, Vermilion, South Dakota, 399 pp., 1979.
Brown, L, "Birds of Prey: Their Biology and Ecology,"
A & W Publishers, New York, 256 pp., 1977.
Clark, W.S., "The Field Identification of North American
Eagles," American Birds, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 822-826,
September/October, 1983.

BUTEOS

The most commonly observed hawks are the buteos. They have broad, rounded wings and broad tails,
which are usually spread as they fly. Buteos soar high above grasslands and agricultural areas, often
circling to take advantage of rising air currents to gain altitude. They are often observed perched on utility
poles and fence posts.

Rough-legged hawk
(Buteo lagopus)

FIELD MARKS: Both sexes have dark brown back and
wings, light mottled-brown head, and a white tail with a
black terminal band. Most birds have a wide, dark brown
belly band. In flight, the wing undersides are white with
brown tips. Light-phase birds have a dark patch of brown
midway along the forward edge of the wing. Dark-phase
birds are dark chocolate-brown all over, except for white
wing feathers on the undersides, and the mostly white tail.

Vo.iv-

The sexes can be told apart by the tail: Males have dark
barring above the terminal band, while females have a
single solid terminal band, with no barring. SIZE: Rough-
legged hawks range in length from 19-24 inches, and have
a wingspan of 48-56 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: Other
Montana buteo hawks lack the white tail with dark terminal
band. The time of year is the best clue, since rough-legs are
the most common hawk seen during the winter, but are
absent from Montana during the summer when other
hawks are most common. Immature golden eagles are
larger and have dark flight feathers. HABITAT: Rough-legs
hunt over grasslands and agricultural land. They are often
seen perched on utility poles and fence posts. LIFE
HISTORY: Rough-legged hawks nest in northern Canada
and Alaska, and migrate to the lower 48 states in winter.
They are most numerous in Montana from October through
March. In winter, rough-legs are the most common buteo
hawk. FOOD HABITS: They primarily prey upon small
mammals such as ground squirrels, rabbits, and mice. They
occasionally eat birds and insects. STATUS: Rough-legged
hawks are common- during the winter in open country
throughout the state.

Swainson's hawk
(Buteo s wains oni)

FIELD MARKS: Adults are dark brown above, and white
with chestnut-brown bib below; tail grayish-brown, finely
barred, becoming lighter toward the base. In flight, the
wing undersides appear two-toned, with the flight feathers
dark and the leading edge of the wing white. The wings of
Swainson's hawks are slightly more pointed than those of
other buteos. Dark-phase Swainson's hawks appear all dark
brown above and below and on the entire wing undersides,
making them look like a miniature eagle. Intermediate color
phases occur, with dark brown bibs and chestnut barring
on the belly. Immatures lack the bib and are more strongly
barred or streaked underneath. Swainson's hawks are
slightly smaller than red-tailed hawks, and have longer,
narrower wings than other buteos. SIZE: Swainson's
hawks range in length from 18-22 inches, and have a
wingspan of 48-52 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: All other
buteo hawks have white flight feathers. Red-tailed hawks
have a dark belly band and no bib, while Swainson's hawks
have a bib, but no belly band. HABITAT: Swainson's hawks

nest in river bottom forests, brushy coulees, and shelter-
belts. They hunt in grasslands and agricultural land,
especially along river bottoms. LIFE HISTORY: Flimsy nests
are built in trees and shrubs, often as low as four feet from
the ground. Swainson's hawks are more tolerant of humans
than other hawks, and will often nest close to occupied
houses. One to three eggs are laid in May, and incubated
for about 28 days. The young fledge in late July and
August. Swainson's hawks leave in late September, migrat-
ing to Argentina for the winter. They often migrate in large
flocks. FOOD HABITS: Swainson's hawks prey on a wide
variety of small mammals, songbirds, and insects. STAT-
US: Common in Montana, but populations have declined in
some parts of the United States due to habitat loss from
cultivation, removal of river bottom forests, and removal of
shelterbelts.

Red-tailed hawk
(red-tail, chicken hawk)
(Buteo jamaicensis)

FIELD MARKS: Plumage is extremely variable, ranging
from very light forms to very dark forms. The "typical"
color phase is dark brown above and white below, with a
band of dark speckling across the belly (belly band), and a
rusty-red tail (paler underneath). Flying birds are white with
brown barring underneath, dark brown edges around the
wings, and dark brown shoulder patches. The dark belly
band is easiest to see in flying birds. The western race of
red-tailed hawks is darker with more streaking than the
typical phase. Krider's red-tail is a very pale race found in
the Great Plains, including eastern Montana. These are light
mottled brown above and nearly pure white below. The
belly band is often indistinct or absent, and the tail is
usually light rust above and creamy white below, with faint
barring. Harlan's red-tail (formerly considered a distinct
species) is dark mottled brown above, and light brown and
white streaked below, with a brown barred tail. They breed
in northern Canada and Alaska, and are seen in Montana
only during migration. All of these races can have light and
dark individuals (color phases). The dark (melanistic) color
phase is much less common than the light color phase.
Melanistic red-tails have a dark brown belly, and dark
brown wing "arms," with light flight feathers, giving their

wings a two-toned appearance from underneath. The
immatures of all color phases and races look similar to the
adults, except they have brown barred tails and more
brown streaking over the rest of their bodies. SIZE:
Red-tailed hawks range in length from 19-25 inches, and
have a wingspan of 46-58 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES:
Krider's red-tails are easily mistaken for ferruginous hawks,
but they have white feathering on the legs (ferruginous
hawks have dark feathering on the legs). Rough-legged
hawks of all ages and color phases have a white tail with a
black terminal band, instead of the rust or brown tail of the
red-tail. Swainson's hawks have a chestnut-brown bib, but
no belly band, and have dark-colored flight feathers instead
of light ones. HABITAT: Red-tails nest in trees and on cliffs,
and hunt over grasslands, open woodlands, and agricultural
areas. LIFE HISTORY: One to three eggs are laid in April.
Incubation lasts about a month. The young fly in June or
July when 6-7 weeks old. Red-tailed hawks migrate to the
southern United States for the winter, although some
winter in Montana. FOOD HABITS: Red-tailed hawks eat
primarily ground squirrels and other small rodents, but also
feed on a wide variety of other animals. Red-tailed hawks
often eat snakes, including rattlesnakes. STATUS: The
red-tailed hawk is common throughout Montana and most
of North America.

Ferruginous hawk
(ferruginous rough-leg)
(Buteo regalis)

FIELD MARKS: Ferruginous hawks have rust backs and
shoulders. Their wings are brown above and white below.
Rusty legs form a dark "V" against the white undersides.
The tail is white with a faint rust tip. Ferruginous hawks
usually appear very light-colored when viewed from a
distance. Dark-phase birds are dark brown on the body, but
still have the whitish tail. Immature birds are brown instead
of rust, and have brown streaking on the undersides. SIZE:
Ferruginous hawks range in length from 22-25 inches, and
have a wingspan of 53-56 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES:
Krider's red-tailed hawk is brown, not rust, has white
feathers on legs, dark shoulder patches, and a dark band
across the belly. Rough-legged hawks have a black terminal
band on their tail. HABITAT: Ferruginous hawks require
large expanses of unbroken badlands and prairie for nesting
and hunting. Their large nests are usually built on steep,
eroded hillsides and ridge tops, on cliffs, and occasionally in

trees. LIFE HISTORY: Two to five eggs are laid in early
April, and incubation lasts about one month. Ferruginous
hawks are much more sensitive to disturbance than other
hawks and may abandon their nest if disturbed during
incubation. The young usually leave the nest in July, when
about 1-1/2 months old. Ferruginous hawks migrate to the
southern United States for the winter. FOOD HABITS:
Their primary prey is jackrabbits, ground squirrels, and
prairie dogs, although they occasionally eat birds and
reptiles. STATUS: Ferruginous hawks are a species of
special concern in Montana. They are fairly common in
some parts of the state, but some populations are declining
due to habitat loss caused by cultivation of native prairie.

•^Mnif\£ TtiSltnr-

-&^>

ACCIPITERS

Accipiters are low-flying hawks of the forest. They have short, rounded wings and long tails. They are
usually seen darting through the forest in pursuit of birds. When flying in the open, accipiters exhibit a
distinctive flight pattern of alternately flapping their wings a number of times, then gliding a short
distance. Accipiters occasionally soar high in the air.

Sharp-shinned hawk
(Accipiter striatus)

FIELD MARKS: Adults are dark grayish-blue above, with a
very dark crown. The tail is white-tipped with broad gray
bars. Underparts are white with rusty barring from the
throat to the legs, and white under the base of the tail. The
legs are yellow and the iris of the eye is red. Adult females
are similar to males, only duskier. Immatures are brown
above, with rufous (rusty red) coloring on the neck.
Underneath, they are dull white with distinct brown spots
from the neck to the legs. Immatures have yellow legs and
yellow eyes. In flight, sharp-shinned hawks exhibit typical
accipiter flight of alternately flapping, then gliding. SIZE:
Sharp-shinned hawks range in length from 10-14 inches,
and have a wingspan of 18-24 inches, with the males
smaller than the females. SIMILAR SPECIES: Cooper's
hawks have similar coloration, but are larger (about
crow-sized). In flight, sharp-shinned hawks exhibit a

squared tail, and Cooper's hawks have a more rounded tail.
These two species are among the hardest to tell apart in
the field. Immature sharp-shinned hawks are colored like
immature merlins, but have shorter, rounded wings, and
yellow instead of dark eyes. Their heads are also smaller in
proportion to their bodies than the merlin's. HABITAT:
They most commonly use heavy timber, especially even-
aged stands of conifers, but sometimes hunt in open areas.
LIFE HISTORY: Sharp-shinned hawks arrive at the nest
sites in late April, and complete their clutches of three to
five eggs by late May. The nests are built in thick timber,
usually well-hidden within the forest canopy. Incubation
lasts about 33 days, and the young start to fly when about
23 days old. Sharp-shinned hawks occur in Montana
year-round, but little is known about the migration patterns
of the birds that nest here. FOOD HABITS: They feed
almost entirely on songbirds, although they occasionally
take small mammals and insects. STATUS: The sharp-
shinned hawk is listed as a species of special concern in
Montana. Although sharpshins are regularly observed, little
is known about their status in Montana.

immature

Cooper's hawk
(Accipiter cooperii)

FIELD MARKS: Male Cooper's hawks are dark gray on the
back with a black crown and paler neck and face. The belly
is white with distinct horizontal rufous bars extending from
the neck to the tail and legs. The iris of the eye is deep red
and the feet are yellow. Adult females have similar
markings, except they have more brown on the back and
the eye color is paler. Juveniles are brown on the back with
some white streaking on the head and neck, white with
brown streaking on the belly, and the tail has a white tip
and three or four dark brown bars. SIZE: Cooper's hawks
measure from 14-20 inches in length with wingspans of
27-36 inches. Females are somewhat larger than males.

SIMILAR SPECIES: Appearance is similar to that of the
northern goshawk and the sharp-shinned hawk. Cooper's
hawks are somewhat smaller than goshawks and larger
than sharp-shinned hawks. The tail of the Cooper's hawk
appears more rounded in flight than that of the sharp-
shinned hawk. HABITAT: They nest in dense deciduous
and coniferous forest cover, often in draws or riparian
areas. They hunt in these areas or in adjacent open country.
LIFE HISTORY: Cooper's hawks arrive at their nesting
territories in late March and early April. Clutches of three to
five eggs are usually laid by mid-May. They hatch after an
incubation of 30-34 days. The young fly about 30 days after
hatching and remain in the vicinity of the nest for up to
three weeks after leaving it. FOOD HABITS: Small to
medium-sized birds comprise most of the diet of Cooper's
hawks, although they also eat small mammals. STATUS:
Listed as a species of special concern in Montana. Very little
is known about the population status and productivity of
this species.

Northern goshawk
(Accipiter gent His)

FIELD MARKS: Adult males are dark slate-gray above and
silver to white below, with fine vertical streaking on the
breast and abdomen. The tail has a broad dark subterminal
band and three to four narrower dark bands. A broad silver
to white stripe extends from above and forward of the eye
to the back of the head. The feet are yellow. The iris is
yellow in young birds and bright orange in mature birds.
Adult females are similar to males except for being more
brownish. Juveniles are brown to rufous on the back and
rufous on the belly, with reddish-brown streaking on the

underparts. Tail feathers are brown with wide dark brown
barring. SIZE: Goshawks range from 20-26 inches in length
and have a wingspan of 36-48 inches, with the females
usually larger than the males. SIMILAR SPECIES: Appear-
ance is similar to the Cooper's hawk and the sharp-shinned
hawk, but the goshawk is somewhat larger than the
Cooper's and much larger than the sharpshin. Goshawks
are much more silvery underneath than the Cooper's or
sharp-shinned hawks. Goshawks also have a distinctive
white eye stripe. Goshawks can be told from falcons by
their shorter, more rounded wings, and alternating flap-
and-glide flight pattern. HABITAT: Northern goshawks are
birds of heavy forest cover. They usually nest in older
growth stands of coniferous, deciduous, or mixed forest
and hunt in the forest, clearings, or in open fields. LIFE
HISTORY: They generally occupy their nesting territory by
late March. Clutches of three to five eggs are laid in May,
and incubation takes 36-38 days. Nestlings can fly when
they are 40-45 days old. Goshawks often use plucking
perches — they pluck the prey before taking it to the
nestlings. Goshawks may be observed year-round in many
parts of western Montana. FOOD HABITS: Northern
goshawks readily capture large and medium-sized birds
and mammals. They regularly take species as large as
grouse and rabbits, although they also prey on many
smaller species. STATUS: The goshawk is a species of
special concern in Montana. Although goshawks are regu-
larly observed, very little is known about their population
status and productivity in Montana.

FALCONS

Falcons are fast-flying birds of open country. They are famous for attaining high speeds as they dive from
high altitudes to knock unsuspecting birds out of the air. Falcons have long, pointed wings and fairly long
tails, which are usually folded as they fly. Falcons flap their wings almost continuously during level flight,
and they rarely soar.

Gyrfalcon
(Falco rusticolus)

FIELD MARKS: Several color phases, ranging from white to
dark slate-gray, exist. White birds exhibit varying degrees
of dark barring on the upper parts of the body, but the
undersides may be nearly pure white. Darker birds have
considerable dark barring and streaking on a light gray
breast and belly. Gray birds are more commonly observed
in Montana than white birds. Immature birds are similar to
adults, but have blue-gray legs instead of the yellow legs of
the adults. SIZE: Females measure about 22 inches in
length and have a wingspan of about 48 inches. Male
measurements range from two to four inches smaller.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Gyrfalcons are much larger and appear
stockier than either peregrine or prairie falcons. HABITAT:
Gyrfalcons breed in the remote Arctic and sub-Arctic zones
around the globe. During the winter months, they often are
seen as migrants or over-wintering birds in eastern Mon-
tana and in the western valleys, especially where waterfowl
or upland game birds concentrate. LIFE HISTORY: Male
gyrfalcons begin defending their breeding territories as

early as January and February, and females arrive by
March. Eggs are laid by late April or early May, and young
hatch after 30-35 days of incubation. The young fly when
about 7-8 weeks old. During years of prey shortages in the
north, large numbers of gyrfalcons move down into the
northern United States in winter. FOOD HABITS: Gyrfal-
cons primarily eat birds, ranging from small songbirds to
ducks and grouse. STATUS: In Montana, gyrfalcons are
rare winter residents and migrants.

Merlin (pigeon hawk)
(Falco columbarius)

FIELD MARKS: Males are blue-gray to dark blue above and
pale rufous to buff-colored below, with dark streaking or
barring. Females are brown above and creamy to rufous
below with darker streaking. The tail is barred dark with
gray to white and exhibits a dark subterminal band. The
eye is dark brown, and feet are yellow. Juveniles of both
sexes resemble females, but are sometimes darker. SIZE:
Merlins are from 10-12 inches in length, and have wing-
spans of 19-24 inches. Females are slightly larger than
males. SIMILAR SPECIES: Merlins are significantly smaller
than gyrfalcons, prairie falcons, and peregrine falcons. Both
sexes are more uniform in color than the brightly colored
American kestrel. Immature merlins resemble immature
sharp-shinned hawks, but have pointed wings and dark
eyes, instead of the short, rounded wings and yellow eyes
of the sharpshin. HABITAT: Breeding pairs in eastern
Montana usually use sparse conifer stands adjacent to
prairie habitats, but sometimes use shelterbelts and river
bottom forests. In western Montana, they use open stands
of conifers and river bottom forests. Merlins sometimes

nest in urban areas. LIFE HISTORY: Male merlins arrive at
nesting areas in late March and early April, and females
arrive slightly later. They use nests previously constructed
by black-billed magpies or common crows; merlins, like
other falcons, do not build their own nests. Clutches of
three to five eggs are laid from mid-April to early June, and
are incubated for about 30 days. The young fly when about
40 days old, but they may remain near their nests for up to
a month afterward. Merlins in the wild live to be about 8
years old. FOOD HABITS: Merlins primarily eat small birds.
In eastern Montana, common prey includes grassland birds
such as horned larks, vesper sparrows, and lark buntings. In
western Montana, prey includes various sparrows, finches,
and waxwings. Young merlins often take larger insects
such as grasshoppers and moths. STATUS: The merlin is
listed as a species of special concern in Montana. Limited
information on populations in Montana exists.

adult female

•wjtw&'-wjt-

Prairie falcon
(Falco mexicanus)

FIELD MARKS: Sexes are similar in color, uniformly buffy
brown above and creamy white below. The tail is rufous-
brown with very fine barring. Adults have a brown-barred
breast and belly, while juveniles have more boldly brown-
streaked underpants. Both adults and young have dark
brown feathers on the undersides of the wings near the
body ("wing pits"), and a dark brown stripe running
diagonally backward from below the eye. The eye is dark
brown. SIZE: Males average about 15 inches in length and
have a wingspan of about 37 inches, and females average
about 17 inches in length with a wingspan of about 41
inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: Prairie falcons are about the
same size as juvenile peregrine falcons, but lighter in color.
They are much smaller than gyrfalcons, and much larger
than female merlins. None of the other falcons have the
dark "wing pits" under the wings. HABITAT: Prairie falcons
use cliffs for nesting, and grassland and prairie habitats for
hunting. LIFE HISTORY: Nests sites are on cliffs, usually in
a large hole or sheltered ledge, or sometimes in stick nests
built by golden eagles or hawks. Adults establish nesting
territories in late March or early April, and noisy aerial
courtship displays are common. Clutches of three to five

eggs are usually laid in late April, and incubated for about
one month. Young leave the nest when about 40 days old,
but may stay nearby for up to four weeks afterward.
Migration southward and eastward from Montana nesting
areas is common. Maximum reported life span for a wild
bird is 14 years. Mortality during the first year of life may be
as high as 74%, and 25% during later years. FOOD
HABITS: Prairie falcons feed primarily on birds and mam-
mals, often exploiting locally abundant prey populations. In
Montana, common prey are western meadowlarks, horned
larks, and ground squirrels. STATUS: The prairie falcon is
listed as a species of special concern in Montana. Prairie
falcons are generally more common east of the Continental
Divide, and can be locally abundant in good habitat. Prairie
falcon populations were not greatly affected by pesticides
such as DDT, because they prey so heavily on mammals
which don't tend to accumulate the pesticides in their body
tissues as do birds.

Peregrine falcon

(duck hawk, bullet hawk)

(Falco peregrinus)

FIELD MARKS: Adult peregrine falcons are dark blue to
nearly black above, and light buffy to creamy below, with
dark barring on the lower breast and abdomen and white
on the upper breast and throat. Sexes are similarly colored.
Juveniles are brown above and tan to buff below, with
brown barring on the breast and abdomen. Feet are
blue-gray on juveniles and yellow on adults. SIZE: Males
range from 14-17 inches in length and have wingspans of
about three feet. Females range from 1 7-20 inches in length
and have wingspans of about 36-40 inches. SIMILAR
SPECIES: Merlins are considerably smaller and gyrfalcons
are larger. Prairie falcons are similar in size, but are more
uniformly pale in color than juvenile peregrines and have
dark "wing pits." HABITAT: Peregrine falcons prefer open
areas, especially marshes, for hunting. For nest sites, they
prefer cliff edges and cavities. Peregrines occasionally nest
on buildings in cities or in trees. In Montana, peregrines
were historically distributed along the major rivers of the
state, probably because these areas offered the highest
concentrations of birds used as prey. LIFE HISTORY: Adult
peregrines arrive at breeding territories in the western

United States in March and April. Courtship involves flight
displays and loud vocalizations. Incubation of clutches of
two to five eggs generally takes from 28-32 days. Young
birds leave the nest at 35-42 days after hatching, usually
during early July. FOOD HABITS: Prey consists primarily of
birds, ranging from the size of swallows to ducks. Shore-
birds and waders are taken in areas in which they are
abundant near nesting sites or migration routes. STATUS:
Listed as an endangered species, breeding populations
were believed to have become extinct in Montana by the
late 1970s. Efforts to reintroduce captive-bred peregrines
since have shown promise. Migrants from Canada are
sometimes observed, especially near areas of high concen-
trations of migrating waterfowl.

immature

American kestrel (sparrow hawk)
(Falco sparverius)

FIELD MARKS: Adult males are slate-blue on their wings
and the crown of their heads. The back is rufous with
distinct dark brown horizontal barring. The tail is uniformly
rufous with a black band on the end. The breast is buff to
cream with light vertical streaking. The female is uniformly
rufous on the back and wings with dark brown horizontal
banding. The tail is similarly marked. The breast is buff with
heavy rufous streaking. Both sexes have a dark vertical
stripe below, in front of, and behind the eye, with an
additional dark stripe farther back on the head. Juvenile
males differ from adults in having a more heavily marked
breast and brown-tipped tail feathers. Juvenile females are
identical to adult females. SIZE: American kestrels range
from nine to 12 inches in length and have a wingspan of
20-24 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: Merlins are slightly larger
than kestrels. Female merlins are not as rufous as female

kestrels. Male merlins have blue backs and wings. Sharp-
shinned hawks have more rounded wings, and have blue or
brown backs and wings. HABITAT: American kestrels are
found in nearly all habitats in Montana. Nests are often
located in cavities in trees, banks, cliffs, and buildings. They
also use man-made nest boxes. They usually hunt in open
habitat. Kestrels often perch on overhead wires or posts
while looking for prey, or hover in midair. LIFE HISTORY:
Male kestrels arrive at nest sites before females. A
prolonged and often noisy courtship in May results in three
to seven eggs which hatch after 28 to 30 days of
incubation. The young fly when they are about a month old.
Parents and young often stay together for up to a month
after they leave the nest. FOOD HABITS: During the
summer, kestrels feed heavily on large insects such as
grasshoppers. Other prey includes small birds, rodents, and
snakes. During winter they feed primarily on small birds
and rodents. STATUS: The American kestrel is very
common, the most abundant bird of prey in many parts of
Montana.

female

EAGLES

Eagles are large, soaring birds of open country and mountains. They have long, rounded wings and short
tails that are spread as they fly.

Golden eagle

(mountain eagle, ring-tailed eagle)

(Aquila chrysaetos)

FIELD MARKS: Adults are brown overall, gold on head and
neck feathers, with light brown bands in the tail. Immature
birds have white patches on the wings and white at the
base of the tail feathers. Golden eagles often soar with their
wings held nearly flat, but slightly upturned. The legs are
heavily feathered down to the tops of the toes. SIZE:
Golden eagles range in length from 33-38 inches, and have
a wingspan of 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 feet. SIMILAR SPECIES: Bald
eagles have feathers only part way down the leg, and
usually soar with wings held completely flat. Immature bald
eagles usually have a strip of white along the underside of
the wing, rather than in a round patch on the flight feathers
like the immature golden eagle. Older immature bald eagles
have irregular patches of white on their bodies, instead of
the sharply defined patterns on golden eagles. Turkey
vultures soar with wings held in a more pronounced "V."
HABITAT: Golden eagles nest on cliffs and in large trees
(occasionally on power poles), and hunt over prairie and
open woodlands. LIFE HISTORY: Golden eagles first breed

when 4-5 years old. The same pair often uses the same
nest year after year; nests are sometimes over six feet in
diameter. One to three eggs are laid in March or April, and
incubated for about 45 days. The eaglets fly in June or July
when about 10 weeks old. Most Montana golden eagles
probably remain in Montana throughout the year, but
northerly populations are more migratory. FOOD HABITS:
In Montana, golden eagles eat primarily jackrabbits, ground
squirrels, and carrion (dead animals). They occasionally
prey on deer and antelope (mostly fawns), waterfowl,
grouse, weasels, skunks, and other animals. Golden eagles
rarely prey on livestock, and the heaviest losses usually
occur in areas where migrating eagles congregate. Golden
eagles can carry no more than about seven pounds while
flying. STATUS: The golden eagle is listed as a species of
special concern in Montana. They are common in some
parts of the state. --•

Bald eagle

(sea eagle, American eagle)

(Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

FIELD MARKS: Adults are easily identified by their white
heads and tails. Immatures vary greatly in plumage.
First-year birds are dark brown with white only in a thin
band along the underside of the wing. Birds 2-4 years old
have varying amounts of white on various parts of their
bodies. Some resemble ospreys with a whitish belly and
head and a dark eye stripe. Others are mottled with whitish
patches on their wings, tail, belly, and back. They attain the
pure white head and tail when about 5 years old. Bald
eagles usually soar with wings held flat. Their head is
proportionally larger than a golden eagle's, and their legs
are only feathered part way to the feet. SIZE: Bald eagles
range in length from 34-43 inches, and have a wingspan of
6 to 7-1/2 feet. SIMILAR SPECIES: Immature golden eagles
have white only at the base of the tail and as a round patch
on the upper and lower sides of the wings. They have
feathers all the way down their legs. Golden eagles have a
golden-tinged head and neck. Turkey vultures soar with
their wings held slightly upturned in a "V." Ospreys, with
their dark backs and light heads, re-
semble bald eagles at a distance, but
they soar with their wings bent at a
slight angle instead of straight. Os-
preys have longer, narrower wings,
and are mostly white underneath. HA-
BITAT: Bald eagles nest in large trees,
usually within one mile of a large lake
or river. In winter they can be easily
observed along ice-free stretches of
major rivers. LIFE HISTORY: One to

three eggs are laid in March or April and incubated for
about 35 days. The eaglets leave the nest in June or July,
when about 9 to 10 weeks old. Bald eagles migrate as far
south as Nevada for the winter. Many eagles that nest in
Canada pass through Glacier National Park in the fall,
stopping to feed on spawning kokanee salmon. As many as
600 have been counted in one day along McDonald Creek
near West Glacier. FOOD HABITS: The majority of their
diet is comprised of fish. They also prey on waterfowl,
especially in winter. They also eat carrion and a variety of
other mammals and birds. STATUS: Bald eagles are listed
as an endangered species in most of North America,
including Montana. The population appears to be rebound-
ing after reaching lows in the 1 970s due to DDT contamina-
tion. About 60 pairs currently nest in Montana, primarily in
the western half of the state.

immature

HARRIERS

Harriers are usually seen soaring about six feet above the ground in grasslands, as they search for mice.
They have long wings and tails.

Northern harrier

(marsh hawk, hen harrier)
(Circus cyaneus)

FIELD MARKS: Males are gray above and white below,
with black wing tips. Females are brown above and
speckled white and brown below. Juveniles resemble
females, but are buff below. All show a distinctive white
rump patch at the base of the tail, and have long, narrow
wings and tail. SIZE: Harriers range in length from 17-23
inches, and have a wingspan of 38-48 inches. Females are
larger than males. SIMILAR SPECIES: Swainson's hawks
have white on the tail feathers rather than the rump, and
have shorter wings and tail. Ospreys have a white head
with brown eye stripes, and are rarely found more than a
few miles from large rivers or lakes. HABITAT: Harriers
nest on the ground in dense grass, snowberry-rose patch-
es, and hay fields. They hunt in grasslands, especially near
wetlands and agricultural areas. LIFE HISTORY: Harriers
arrive on their breeding areas in March and April. From
three to nine eggs are laid in May. The eggs hatch in June
and the young can fly at 30-35 days. Most harriers depart
for their wintering areas by late November, although some

winter in Montana. FOOD HABITS: Small mammals,
especially voles (meadow mice), form the majority of their
diet. They also eat birds, amphibians, reptiles, and insects.
Harriers are the only hawks to use sound to locate prey,
much like owls. Their hearing is much more acute than
other hawks, although not as acute as owls. STATUS:
Harriers are one of the most abundant raptors in Montana,
but their populations are declining in some parts of the
United States due to habitat loss from cultivation and
draining or filling of wetlands.

» f

adult female

OSPREYS

The osprey is a fish-eating raptor found throughout the world near oceans, lakes, and rivers. Ospreys have
long wings and often hover or soar over water searching for fish.

Osprey (fish hawk)
(Pandion haliaetus)

FIELD MARKS: Ospreys are dark brown above and white
below, with a barred tail. The head is white with a
prominent brown eye stripe extending from the eye to the
shoulders. Females and immature birds have brown streak-
ing on the breast. Immatures also have light feather edges
on the tops of their wings, giving them a speckled look.
Ospreys have long, narrow wings, which are bent at the
wrist when soaring. The underside of the wing often
appears two-toned, with white along the leading edge of it
(except for dark wrist patches), and brown-barred flight
feathers. They have a loud whistled call. SIZE: Ospreys
range in length from 21-24 inches, and have a wingspan of
54-72 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: Bald eagles are much
larger and hold their wings straight out when soaring.
Eagles have dark brown bellies and wings, in contrast to
the white belly and barred wings of the osprey. HABITAT:
Ospreys nest mainly near large lakes, reservoirs, and rivers
in Montana. LIFE HISTORY: Ospreys build their large nests
on trees, power poles, docks, and other man-made struc-
tures. Ospreys prefer to build their nest at the top of dead,
broken-topped trees, unlike eagles, which usually build
nests in live trees below the tree canopy. Ospreys often

build "frustration" nests if their first nest fails, although
they rarely lay eggs a second time. Ospreys arrive in
Montana in March and April, and lay one to four eggs in
April or May. The young leave the nest in July and August,
when about 2 months old. Ospreys depart by October for
wintering areas in Central and South America. FOOD
HABITS: Nearly all of their diet consists of fish, primarily
rough fish such as suckers. STATUS: Ospreys are listed as
a species of special concern in Montana. Populations are
expanding after being greatly reduced by DDT contamina-
tion. Ospreys are fairly common in the western half of the
state near large bodies of water. Creation of large reservoirs
in the eastern half of Montana has allowed ospreys to nest
in areas not historically used.

VULTURES

Vultures are large birds of prey that eat primarily carrion. They often gather in large groups for roosting and
feeding. Turkey vultures use both sight and smell to locate food. They often sway or tip from side to side
as they soar. Their exceptional soaring abilities allow them to cover large areas in search of food without
expending large amounts of energy.

Turkey VUltUre (buzzard) wingspan of 68-72 inches. SIMILAR SPECIES: Adult golden

eagles and immature bald eagles are slightly larger, usually
(CdthSrt&S 3UFd) soar with wings held flat instead of in a "V," and have

wings that appear all one shade instead of two-toned.
FIELD MARKS: Vultures are large, black birds. When Common ravens are much smaller and have a wedge-
soaring overhead, the wings have a two-toned gray and shaped tail. HABITAT: Turkey vultures forage in a variety of
black appearance. Turkey vultures often hold their wings in habitats, including grasslands, badlands, open woodlands,
a shallow "V" and rock from side to side when soaring. The and farmlands. LIFE HISTORY: Turkey vultures nest in
head usually appears small in relation to the body. The red caves, large hollow trees, abandoned buildings, and, rarely,
color of the head in adults is often hard to see on flying 0n the ground or in trees. They do not construct nests, but
birds. Young birds have blackish-gray heads. SIZE: Turkey simply lay their eggs on whatever material is available. Two
vultures range in length from 26-32 inches and have a 0r, rarely, three eggs are laid in April or May. Incubation

lasts 38 to 41 days. The young, fed by regurgitation, remain

in the nest about eight to 10 weeks. Turkey vultures often

*///?/&> congregate in large roosting and feeding flocks. They

^Uk BW. migrate to the southern United States and Central America

Jfl ^L for the winter. FOOD HABITS: Carrion is the primary food,

JM ^ Bl but they sometimes prey on small mammals. STATUS:

M rj) 8L Turkey /ultures are common over most of Montana but

U * |K their distribution is often spotty, depending on the availabil-

jfl ^L ity of carrion.

> 1. V

^wvnoiuohr- yt

OVERHEAD FLIGHT SILHOUETTES

rough-legged hawk

ferruginous hawk

red-tailed hawk

BUTEOS

Swainson's hawk

HARRIERS

northern harrier

ACCIPITERS

northern goshawk

Cooper's hawk

sharp-shinned hawk

peregrine falcon

FALCONS

prairie falcon

merlin

T-

American kestrel

EAGLES

golden eagle (adult)

golden eagle (immature)

bald eagle (adult)

bald eagle (immature)

OSPREYS

&& osprey

In Montana, the gyrfalcon is a rare winter resident and migrant, so its
overhead flight silhouette is not included here. All birds drawn to same
scale.

VULTURES

turkey vulture

(courtesy of the National Audubon Society. Chuck Ripper, artist, reprinted with
permission)

READERS RESPOND

Wooden Posts Save Hummers

I, too, would be upset if I found seven
dead hummingbirds along my electric
fence. However, I use wooden posts so
that won't happen.

For a hummer to get electrocuted, it
would have to touch the hot wire and the
metal post at the same time— to complete
the electric circuit. One can purchase
black insulators instead of red, but that
really doesn't take care of the problem.
The only solution I've found is to use
wooden posts instead of metal.— John L.
Delano; Helena, Mont.

£ * * # *

I am taking advantage of your invita-
tion for readers of Montana Outdoors to
comment on the problem of humming-
birds being electrocuted when they mis-
take red insulators on electric fences for
bright flowers. The problem was first
reported in 1983 by James W. Wilson, an
ornithologist with the Missouri De-
partment of Conservation (MDOC). At
the time, Mr. Wilson reported that,
"Almost all the fences we checked with
red insulators on them had dead hum-
mingbirds underneath them last fall."
Mr. Wilson's inquiries to other game
departments produced reports of similar
incidents from biologists in three states.

According to Mr. Wilson, the problem
is associated particularly with the "Red
Snap'r" insulator manufactured by North
Central Plastics of Ellendale, Minn.
There was no evidence that red insulators
manufactured by other companies pose a
hazard to hummingbirds.

The Wildlife Division of the MDOC
has taken the lead in publicizing the
danger to hummingbirds and trying to
find a solution. For up-to-date informa-
tion on the status of this effort, your
readers could phone them at 314/751-
4115.

The Humane Society of the United
States (HSUS) has cooperated with the
MDOC in trying to protect humming-
birds from electrocution. We would be
pleased to join with the Department of
Fish, Wildlife and Parks in alerting
Montana residents to this threat to hum-
mingbirds. For example, if you publish an
article or develop a poster on this topic, I
would be happy to route copies to local

humane societies and animal control
agencies in Montana.

I hope the information provided by the
HSUS will assist your readers in investi-
gating this danger to hummingbirds.—
Guy R. Hodge, director, Data and Infor-
mation Services, The Humane Society of
the United States; Washington, D.C.

Cedar Remembered

I subscribe to Montana Outdoors and I
was surprised when I saw the painting by
Shirley Johnson of my pet wolf, Cedar,
on the back cover of your Sept./Oct.
issue.

I lived in Alberton, Mont., during the
1970s and early '80s. I got Cedar about

1978 when he was 6 months old, from a
man who found him incorrigible. I
thought I could train him to be a guard
"dog" for the saloon I owned at the time.
I learned, as he advanced in age, that
wolves are better left to the wild. After
trying unsuccessfully to give him to
several zoos in the "lower 48," I gave
him to a man who purportedly took him to
a ranch in Canada.

I now live in Alaska and work as a
commercial fisherman. I live and work
around a lot of wildlife and occasionally
see wolves and think of Cedar. He was a
pretty animal, and Mrs. Johnson did a
beautiful job of immortalizing him when
she did the painting. Thanks for pub-
lishing it— it made my day!— Joe Harlan;
Kodiak, Alaska

"The Last Parable," an award-winning, 30-minute film produced by the Department
of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, is now available.

By exploring ancient legends and native folklore, "The Last Parable" shows us how the
world must have looked to those who first passed this way. The inspirational narration
is matched by stunning photography of Montana's wildlife and wildlands. It takes us to
places where nature's laws are the only laws— and stresses how those laws should
ultimately influence the way we live our lives.

"The Last Parable" is available free for meetings, classes, or conventions. It is also for
sale in 16mm ($300), 3/4-inch video ($39.95), or 1/2-inch video ($29.95). To reserve a
print or order a copy, contact: Film Center, Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks,
930 Custer Ave. W.; Helena, MT 59620 (406/444-2426).

It was a new canvas, heavy and
starched, smelling direct from
the box, smelling a lot like the
cab of Dad's new pickup. The
date was March 3, 1942. The
tarp was right off the shelf and
barely covered the black wolf stretched
dead stiff in the rear of the green Chevy
half-ton.

It must have provided strange winter
theater as my father drove to Kalispell
in the snow, propped the wolf up for
sidewalk display on Main Street, then
hauled the body to Woodland Park in
the company of his brother George, and
two friends, Victor Sundelius and Cur-
tis Lindsay, a game warden. They
bound the rear feet with rope, heel-
strung the huge animal from a cotton-
wood as if he were a member of the
Plummer gang, and got out the Kodak.
In turn, the men posed, pointed, and
smiled for the camera, then cut the beast
down and spread him across the hood
for more. This was a final act of the
drama that had begun the day before.

To some viewers, the photos would
become little more than conversation
pieces reproduced as post cards advertis-
ing Bigfork, a httle spot in northwestern
Montana on the east shore of Flathead
Lake. In me, however, the pictures
trigger vivid memories, jolt my consci-
ousness, and demonstrate how quickly
time consumes us. My father is gone
now, as are his three companions— all
dead, dead as the wolf. The snapshots
illustrate the death of a majestic predator
that some saw as a victory over Nature,
but that others see as a travesty against
Nature.

The photos do something more: They
confirm my suspicion that Bigfork and
other small towns which grow and
change quickly were special places in
which to be a boy. Such villages and
their unsettled zest provided a Tom
Sawyer existence impossible to resur-
rect.

My involvement with the wolf began
the morning of March 2, a day my
child's mind turned into one brimming
with peril and risk.

The front entrance to Robbin General
Store was one of those big, heavy, larch
doors, plated almost solidly with glass
from top to bottom. When you shut it, the

thing emitted a real thud, followed by the
faint rattle of glass. When it opened, it
had its own sound, too — sort of a clicking
noise with a squeak.

My memory of the wolf began with
the opening of that door, followed by
my father's labored rush to roll the
thundering old platform scale from the
back room and park it at the store's
mouth. At that instant, my throat tight-
ened—his daily pattern had changed,
something important was about to hap-
pen, he knew something I didn't. Four
years old and three feet tall, I stood
midway down the south wall in familiar
territory, behind the candy counter. The
case was lined with old-fashioned jars of
Tootsie Rolls and horehound. There

feel the pounding of my heart and the
throb of blood coursing through veins
too small to allow it to travel wherever
it was going as fast as it wanted to get
there. At that point, my father vanished
out the door, and, although I didn't run
(if indeed I could have made my feet
move), I retreated to a safer distance
and prepared for my confrontation with
the wolf.

It wasn't long until my father and two
other men appeared carrying a huge
animal with profuse, dark, shaggy hair.
A crowd was gathering, and as the wolf
was flopped onto the platform of the
scale, I remember it rolling out in all
directions with the legs pointed north,
toward O'Brien's Hotel. Too large for

Tfte Wolf
At My Door

by Rand Robbin

were Black Cow suckers and lemon
drops, taffy kisses, and wrapped cara-
mels, light and dark. Unable to see over
the top, it was like peering through four
windows at once. From the front, my
eyes must have looked like those of a
giant staring through a magnifier.

"Dad, what are you doing?" I asked.

"We're going to bring a big wolf in
here," he replied.

I knew well the tale of Little Red
Riding Hood, the reputation of wolves,
and their hunger for children. I was
thunderstruck. I didn't knew whether to
flee or stick around and be eaten alive.
It was one of those moments that come
to us all, when we first become aware of
jeopardy to our very existence, our
vulnerability, our fragile grip on life. It
was my first panic attack, and I can still

this new bed, it looked grotesque as it
lay there, silent and unmoving, yet
unwilling to relinquish its menace even
in death.

As the crowd began to speak in
alternating rushes of chatter and silence,
I slowly moved in and gave the thing a
couple of tentative pokes with the tip of
my shoe. My fear gave way to con-
quest, as those nearby began speculating
about the critter's heritage. One man
called it a police dog-wolf cross. An-
other thought it was part wolverine, and
someone claimed to know the progeny
of a bear- wolf combination when he saw
it. Given the drama of the moment,
there is little wonder such fantasies
would surface. Let it be said the animal
had been dead for a while before its
discovery by two men near Weed's

Point at Swan Lake, and Nature and her
accomplice, time, had performed dis-
tortions on the body by the time it got to
Bigfork.

Recognizing the significance of the
wolfs enormous size, my father set
about getting the entire body onto the
licensed scale and taking a witnessed
and accurate weight and measurement.
Thirty-nine inches at the shoulder, the
beast weighed 131 pounds and mea-
sured 82 inches from tip to tip. These

who discovered the dead wolf amidst
the snowy landscape at Swan Lake is
unknown, it was delivered to Bigfork by
my father's friend, Ben Weed. Weed
had the mail contract over the narrow,
winding, timbered Swan road. Had it
not been for his presence of mind to
load it up, the creature may have
remained in the grasp of Nature forever,
its existence unrecorded. My father
went to great effort to give Ben Weed
credit for his part in the story and paid

statistics were given official seal and
signature by Eugene Wright, notary,
and did not take into account the
shrinkage of the carcass over the previ-
ous several days.

The Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, D.C., claimed the wolf was
a record, exceeding the statistics of the
previous world record animal taken near
Three Forks, Mont. , which measured 33
inches at the shoulder, 72 inches from tip
to tip, and weighed 106 pounds.

Although the identity of the two men

him for his effort.

The tourist trade in Bigfork at the time
was much as it is today— a frenzy of
activity which started about the same time
as the horse and mule strings were trailed
up the east shore of Flathead Lake, over
the powerhouse bridge, down main street,
and either east into the Swan Valley or
west into the Forest Service corrals.

With dreams of becoming a cowboy
and rancher one day, my excitement
began when I heard the bell mare and
the horseshoes hit the bridge planks.

The 131-pound wolf nearly covers the
hood of Walter Robbin's 1941 Chev-
rolet pickup. Robbin displayed the
wolf at Robbin General Store in
Bigfork, Mont. The wolf can still be
seen in 1987— at Flathead Bank of
Bigfork.

The Robbin wolf was distinguished by
its large head and teeth.

They came right down the street, hard
and fast, and there were 100 head or
more at times. If it was wet, the
cowboys wore yellow slickers and rode
the best horses. The sight and sound of
it played havoc with my imagination.
When the scene played in reverse in late
fall, my heart sank as the last rider went
over the bridge, the clatter diffusing like
the chime of a dying clock, fading as the
flock of tourists always did.

Realizing that a mounted wolf would
be a conversation topic and a unique
drawing card to their store, my parents,
Walter and Nita Robbin, chose to have
the animal mounted. Unfortunately,
when the newly prepared wolf was
returned, complete with bared fangs and
snarl, it was not as full, nor as large, nor
as lifelike as before. It proved to be of
enormous interest despite its diminished
stature, and visitors, letters, comments,
and news articles proliferated.

In their quest to see the famous wolf,
entrants to the store discovered a complete
inventory. It was a general store in the
true sense, providing sporting goods,
groceries, meat, drugs, hardware, dry
goods, and plumbing. In the warehouse,
my parents merchandised grain, hay, and
building materials.

The firm was open seven days per
week, 10 hours per day. It served a large

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

WASHINGTON. D. C.

IuQroh 20, 1942

Mr. './alter C. Robbin,

Bigfork, Montana.

Dear Mr. Robbin:

Receipt is acknowledged of your letter of March
13 in which you tell of the killing of a large black wolf
in Montana.

The wolves from your region are probably the
largest in North America. They are technically known as
Cants lupus irremotus. The black and gray wolves are
simply color phases of the same species. Both may occur
in the same litter. The largest wolf in the United States
National Museum was taken near Threo Forks, Montana. It
was about 6 feet from tip to tip, 33 inches high at the
shoulder, and weighed 106 pounds. This is probably the
largest wolf on record at the present time. The measure-
ments you give exceed these to a considerable extent; the
animal you mention must be an especially large individual.

Could you tell us any of the details about the
specimen, such as exactly where it was taken and by whom,
and where it now is? We would greatly appreciate any
further information you might give us.

The postage stamp enclosed in your letter is
being returned, as we are sending this letter under
Government frank.

Very truly yours,

A. Yfetmore,
Assistant Secretary.

DHJ:rJ

community and a varied clientele, ranging
from those living at the posh estates at
Swan Lake to farmers, loggers, and
transients. The store was patronized by
the famous— Red Skelton, Con Kelly, and
Gen. Matthew Ridgway— and it was pa-
tronized by the infamous, such as Bugsy
Siegel's gun moll, Virginia Hill, and the
silent burglars who entered and cracked
the safe one dark night.

From its lofty position above the
tackle counter and through its glass
eyes, the black timber wolf glared down
on all who passed beneath. It does the
same today, relocated to a new stand
above the tellers' cages in the Flathead
Bank of Bigfork.

Although timber wolves were nearly
as rare in 1942 as they are now,
attitudes toward them still remain divid-
ed. Some would deride mounting a wolf
to show it to tourists, and others would
maintain that the only good wolf is a
dead wolf— mounted, stuffed for poster-
ity, or whatever.

At daybreak, I would like to see the
hair on the Robbin wolf turn shiny black
and slick again, for his nostrils to spurt
hot jets of vapor into the morning air,
for his glass eyes to melt into flesh and
draw new life, for him then to breach
the long meadow on my ranch at full
stride, fading like a ghost into buck-
brush. ■

Fort Peck Lake has always possessed an ocean of recreational possibilities, but the problem has
been getting people to its shores. A new road-building project promises to solve that dilemma.

Fort Peck Lake has been called the greatest of the
Missouri River's "great lakes" for good rea-
son. It holds enough water to deep-six all of
South Carolina within a shoreline equal to
California's coast.
On the Montana highway map, Fort Peck
Lake looks like a wild ink blot shot from the pen of a suddenly
bored cartographer. It is eastern Montana's most dominant
geological feature, yet Fort Peck has long been a virtual high
plains mirage. It sprawls across five counties, but it is so
remote it can't be seen from either of the two major east-west
travel corridors that bracket the lake's north and south rims
like far-off parentheses. If there is any place in Montana where
the "you-can't-get-there-from-here" conundrum applies, for

50 years it has been Fort Peck Lake.

"What do we have in eastern Montana that is hardly used
because people can't get to it," asks Don Hyyppa rhetorically.
He supplies the answer: "Fort Peck Lake."

Hyyppa, administrator of the department's Parks Division,
would like nothing more than to put that perception to rest by
helping to make the reservoir one of Montana's premier public
recreation facilities. He is not alone. The Department of Fish,
Wildlife and Parks (DFWP) Fisheries Division; Phillips,
Garfield, Petroleum, Valley, and McCone counties; the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers; the Bureau of Land Management
(BLM); the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS); and a
handful of private organizations, in an unusual display of
common-cause cooperation, are participating in a series of

projects designed to get people to the shores of Fort Peck
Lake.

The key is access, or more to the point, all-weather access;
hundreds of miles of dusty trails fan from main roads, over the
vacant plains, through the Missouri Breaks, and across the
Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge to the lake. The
trouble is, the roads to the lake are scratched from a peculiar
geological formation known as Bearpaw shale. Just add water
and hope the relatives have notified the county search and
rescue team. The alchemy of rainwater transforms the soft, yet
nearly impermeable, clay soil of Bearpaw shale into a
formidable formation of clinging, greasy glop affectionately
known on the northern plains as "gumbo." Nothing moves in

The area surrounding Fort Peck Lake is remote, and many of the
roads turn into a clinging, greasy glop called "gumbo" at the
smallest addition of moisture. That will soon change, with
construction of several all-weather access roads.

gumbo. Not fat-wheeled 4x4s, not spunky dirt bikes, not
turn-of-the-century wagon wheels. When it's gumbo. Fort
Peck Lake might as well be limbo. You wait. And you wait.

"People have been reluctant to spend much time in there,"
Hyyppa says, "because if you go in on Friday and it rains on
Saturday, you might not get back to work until Wednesday. "

There is a singular solution to this gumbo-jumbo. Build
gravel roads suitable for station wagons. Easy enough, or so it
must have seemed just a decade ago when Fort Peck Forward,
an association formed to promote Fort Peck Lake recreation,
successfully lobbied for easier access to Montana's largest
body of water. Its effort garnered a $1 million federal
windfall.

MORE THAN 50 YEARS AGO, back when the dam itself
was a mere gleam in the eye of the Army Corps of Engineers,
the mayor of Glasgow, Leo B. Coleman, was told that the dam
would be 250 feet high, 21,000 feet wide, and would hold
18,900,000 acre-feet of water. "Hell," an incredulous
Coleman said, "a dam like that might cost a million dollars."

The dam actually cost $156 million and, in the late 1970s,
members of Fort Peck Forward, like Mayor Coleman, must
have felt that $1 million was a colossal sum. Yet, although
welcome, the one-time infusion of federal funds could only
bankroll limited access projects for boat launching facilities at,
and road improvements to. Nelson and Crooked creeks.

Jim Liebelt, the department's information officer in Glas-
gow, remembers feeling at the time that in the midst of state
and federal budget rollbacks, the prospect of acquiring more
funds for the two access projects appeared dim. In fact, the
prospect of acquiring money to expand recreational access at
Fort Peck wasn't even a consideration until the winter of 1986,
when the intricacies of a new federal funding program began
to trickle down to the states.

Two years earlier. Sen. Malcolm Wallop, R-Wyo., and Sen.
John B. Breaux, D-La., sponsored legislation that amended
the Sport Fishing Restoration Act of 1951 , better known as the
Dingell-Johnson Act, or simply "D-J." Much of the money
for sportfishing restoration programs implemented by state
fishery divisions comes from this D-J excise tax on fishing
equipment. This year, about $140 million will be shared by
states for sportfishing restoration, habitat protection and
enhancement, fishery research, and stream and lake inventor-
ies.

The Wallop-Breaux amendment expanded the sportfishing
restoration funding sources under the D-J act by tapping a
share of motorboat fuel taxes and by establishing an excise tax
on previously untaxed fishing equipment and on imported
yachts. The amendment provides an expanded source of funds
for state resource and conservation agencies. There is,
however, a hook on that funding bait.

UNDER THE WALLOP-BREAUX AMENDMENT, states
receiving sportfishing restoration funds must obligate at least
10% of their annual allotment to develop or maintain areas that
provide access for motorboaters.

In Montana, that works out to be about $248,000 a year and
most of the initial allotments will be spent in eastern Montana.
For decades, eastern Montanans have been trying to develop
recreation amenities as counterpoints to those that have
naturally emerged around the mountains and rivers of western
Montana. The development of flat-water recreation oppor-
tunities in eastern Montana has been a logical alternative, and
a little bit of everything has been done — from acquiring public
access to privately owned stock ponds to actually building
dams.

It is true that Fort Peck Lake's recreation potential has been
largely and reluctantly ignored because of the problems with
access. Nevertheless, it was never perceived as a recreation
facility. As a Depression-era symbol of American progress,
Fort Peck was a Herculean public works project designed by
the Army Corps of Engineers to control and maintain river
flows to improve river navigation from Sioux City, Iowa, to
the mouth of the Missouri some 760 miles downstream. Fort
Peck Dam, the largest hydraulic earth-filled dam in the world,
is essentially a Mississippi River floodgate. Its builders said
the dam could also help to supply water for power generation
and irrigation, but back in 1934, a time when the nation was
looking for work, recreation never made the secondary-uses
roster.

Yet, needs, wants, and expectations change, and now Fort
Peck Lake is known to possess an ocean of recreational
possibilities — thanks in part to establishment of the Charles M.

All-weather roads and other improvements, highlighted in blue, mean badly needed access and other features will now be provided at
Fort Peck Lake.

Russell Wildlife Refuge that literally surrounds the impound-
ment, and to DFWP plans to establish a thriving warmwater
fishery in the lake.

DFWP Fisheries Division officials and the Army Corps of
Engineers have been meeting regularly since 1965 to deter-
mine the best way to serve downstream users yet still allow for
development of a sport fishery. A hardy population of forage
fish— cisco and spottail shiner— are becoming firmly estab-
lished in the lake as walleye and northern pike food staples.
And with Fort Peck Lake expected to be the major beneficiary
of the DFWP's $4.9 million renovation of the Miles City
Warmwater Fish Hatchery, the only thing lacking is a way to
get to the lake there from here.

Ed Swanson, a Valley County commissioner, offered a Fort
Peck tautology. "If you get the fish, people are going to come
to Fort Peck," he said. "We're getting the fish, so now we
need to get the people to the lake."

Hyyppa had discussed ways to use the expansion funds
available under the Wallop-Breaux amendment with other
DFWP officials for nearly a year and found a need to disperse
funds on several projects instead of sinking all the money into
a single project. By March 1986, after discussions with Ron
Wallem, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers project manager at
Fort Peck, Hyyppa thought he had a workable idea that could

provide access to the 135-mile-long lake from all points on the
compass, in addition to accomplishing work on other projects
throughout the state.

In anticipation of using the expansion money at Fort Peck
Lake, Hyyppa, with the help of Wallem, attempted to organize
an informal meeting among state, federal, and county officials
to discuss the possibility of using the new funds as "seed
money" for county road work projects to the lake.

Word of the meeting leaked, and the informal gathering
turned into a full-blown event with media coverage and a wide
assortment of special interests— from Walleyes Unlimited to
boat club members— crowding the floor in unanimous support
of any project that would provide all-weather access to Fort
Peck Lake.

"I DIDN'T KNOW WHAT TO EXPECT," Hyyppa
recalls. "But at that meeting there was such an overpowering
interest in getting access to the lake that ironically I felt I had
to hold back the process people wanted to get started. They
were afraid of losing yet another opportunity. I was afraid of
raising everyone's expectations prematurely. I kept looking
for the fatal flaw in the unusual plan, but, fortunately, it never
surfaced."
By April of 1987, the paperwork for the first segment of the

Fort Peck Lake is eastern Montana's most dominant geological feature; with the addition of access roads and other facilities, the
reservoir will be well on its way toward becoming one of Montana's premier public recreation facilities.

$946,000 plan was complete and approved by the USFWS, the
federal agency that administers the D-J program. Work on
three Fort Peck Lake access roads began this summer.

Under its agreements with the DFWP, each county's
contribution to the project is actual construction labor
performed by county road crews, administration of the
project, and cash payments for materials such as gravel. In
addition, each county is obligated to maintain the access road
under its jurisdiction for the next 25 years.

The Crooked Creek Road, which will provide access to the
reservoir at the mouth of the Musselshell River, is the most
controversial of the projects due to siltation that sometimes
limits use of the boat ramp. But the $250,000 project is also
thought to be particularly vital, because it will open an access
route for use from Billings, Great Falls, and Lewistown, all
major population centers.

In Garfield County, the Hell Creek project will extend 26
miles north of Jordan and provide a dependable access route to
one of the most developed destination points on Fort Peck
Lake.

Valley County's Pines Road will provide access to the lake
from northeastern Montana and, like all of the projects, the
road will receive further upgrading and gravel to make it
suitable for all-weather travel.

The Hell Creek and Pines roads are each three-year projects
scheduled for completion in 1989. Total costs for improving
the Hell Creek and Pines roads will be $277,000 and $138,000
respectively. In addition to these projects, the Fourchette Bay
Road, extending south from Malta in Phillips County, is
scheduled for improvements in 1989 and 1990 at a cost of
$156,000. The road will provide access to one of the most
remote points on the lake. Like several of the other road

projects, the county road work to Fourchette Bay will be
supplemented by the Army Corps of Engineers, the USFWS,
and the BLM.

"We're all really excited about these projects," said Valley
County Commissioner Swanson. "Everyone has just made
this project work because we couldn't have ever bid projects
like these without the Wallop-Breaux money. We have all this
shoreline and very little access to it. Now, were going to have
a couple more access points on the lake and that has everybody
up here talking."

The all-weather access projects, combined with the DFWP
fisheries program now under way, are expected to increase
fishing at Fort Peck from the current 40,000 angling days per
year to 100,000 angling days by the year 2000. The access
road and boat ramps together are expected to provide an
additional 40,280 boat-fishing days by 2000.

In the meantime, the DFWP is preparing applications for
1988 road projects to the Rock Creek Recreation Area in
McCone County at a cost of $50,000 and to the Duck Creek
site at a cost of $75,000. At Duck Creek, construction will
include roads, parking areas, a boat ramp, and support
facilities.

Although each construction project is designed with motor-
boat recreation and fishing access in mind, the all-weather
roads will also benefit landowners who now use the un-
improved roads. The roads, too, will provide better access for
sportsmen who wish to travel by boat into remote areas they
intend to hunt in the rugged Missouri Breaks.

"I feel good about the whole project," Hyyppa says.
"There has been a need for these roads for decades and there
have been several attempts to meet those needs that just never
really worked. It's been a long time coming. "■

CONTRIBUTORS

• The Clark Fork River in western
Montana is a troubled stream. The article
by Liter Spence probably isn't the first
you've read containing that news. But his
is a complete story— it meshes the story of
the river with those of the miners and
ranchers who worked along its banks. It
also presents a bit of hope for the river's
future: the water reservations process
authorized by the 1973 Water Use Act.
Spence is water resources supervisor for
the Department of Fish, Wildlife and
Parks. He was involved in the Yellow-
stone River water reservations proceed-
ings, the first of their kind under the 1973
water law; the Clark Fork is the second
water reservation compiled by the
DFWP. He wishes to express thanks to
Mary C. Horstman of Missoula on whose
historical research he drew. Horstman is
an historical researcher for a Missoula
consulting firm and is completing her
master's degree in history from the Univ-
ersity of Montana, where she was a
Hammond Fellow. She has taught his-
tory, Latin, and English at Powell County
High School in Deer Lodge. Turn to
"Clark Fork Rx— Prescription for Re-
newal?" on page 2.

^ % ^ * ^

• Montana's birds of prey are splendid
creatures— rising on air currents to gain
altitude, hovering, darting, diving, soar-
ing free. Our full-color, 20-page guide,
"Identification of Montana's Birds of
Prey," will help you distinguish the
diurnal (active during the day) hawks,
falcons, eagles, and vultures. Text for the
guide was prepared by Kristi DuBois,
Great Falls, and Dale Becker, Pablo.
DuBois is a computer tutor for a YWCA
program. She holds a bachelor's degree in
wildlife ecology and a master's degree in
fish and wildlife management and worked
as a fish and wildlife biologist for the
DFWP from 1979-86. She was involved
in a three-year study of birds of prey
along the Rocky Mountain Front. She
also worked as a naturalist at The Nature
Conservancy's Pine Butte Swamp Pre-
serve in summer 1986. Becker is a
wildlife research biologist with the U.S.
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Flathead
Agency. He holds bachelor's and mas-
ter's degrees in wildlife biology and is a
member of the Raptor Research Founda-

tion. He is conducting research on bald
eagle and osprey populations on Flathead
Lake and in the lower Flathead River
drainage as part of the Kerr Dam wildlife
studies being conducted by the BIA.

Art for the guide and for our front
cover was prepared by Victor artist Joe
Thornbrugh. He wishes to express
thanks to Dale Becker for technical guid-
ance in preparing the paintings, and to
Duane Williams of UM for his help in
obtaining specimens of the birds of prey.
Thornbrugh's flock of Canada geese fly-
ing over a mountain landscape won the
"First of State" Montana waterfowl
stamp contest. He has observed,
sketched, and painted Montana's wild
things during his entire life. Birds are his
most frequent subject, and his ability to
capture their often subtle coloration and
the intricate patterns of their plumage is
nowhere more evident than in this guide.
Some of his paintings were recently
exhibited at the home of Gov. Ted
Schwinden. His work has also been seen
at the Smithsonian; at museums in Los
Angeles and Seattle; at the National
Wildlife Federation headquarters in
Vienna, Va.; and at the 1979 and 1980
Bird Art Exhibition at the Leigh Yawkey
Woodson Art Museum in Wausau, Wis.
Collectors all over the country are discov-
ering Thornbrugh; rum to page 11 and
follow their example.

• It's the first time MO readers have seen
the Rand Robbin byline, but we suspect
it won't be the last. Born in Bigfork, he
operates a grain and cattle ranch near
Creston. In addition to writing occasional
free-lance pieces, he operates a printmak-
ing studio, specializing in etchings and
engravings. He holds B.A. and M.A.
degrees from UM and an M.F.A. in
printmaking from the University of Wis-
consin. He taught for 13 years at a college
in Washington. "The Wolf at My Door"
is a 4-year-old 's recollection of a familiar
door opening to allow entrance of a dark,
shaggy wolf. Robbin was the child— and
the door marked the entrance to the
general store owned by his parents in
Bigfork. Turn to his thought-provoking
reminiscence on page 32. Robbin wishes
to thank Marc Wilson of the Bigfork
Eagle for his encouragement in expanding

this article, which appeared in the Eagle
in an earlier, abbreviated form.

* * * * *

• MO continues its "Perspectives" series
on page 40 with "Old and Young" by
Don Laubach and Mark Henckel. It's a
chapter from their book, "Elk Talk"
(reviewed on page 7). And it's a chapter
with something to think about, especially
during hunting season. It points out that
many discussions of elk hunting ignore
the youngsters, those "teen-agers who are
just getting their feet wet in the elk
hunting world." And that most discus-
sions fail to address "our older hunters,
the pioneers at the game, who may have
hit their prime some years ago but still
look to their days in the mountains each
fall with a great deal of anticipation." As
the writers note, the young hunter has
much to learn; the older hunter has much
to share. They know whereof they speak:
Laubach is an expert bowhunter— 12 elk
in the last 12 years. He invented a cow
call which has become very popular, and
also designed a new bugle call that is easy
to master. Henckel is outdoor editor of the
Billings Gazette. He, too, is wild about
elk hunting, both in archery and rifle
seasons. His words have won kudos from
the Outdoor Writers Association of
America and other groups, and he is the
author of "A Hunter's Guide to Mon-
tana."

Illustration for "Old and Young" was
prepared especially by Hamilton artist
Robert Neaves. His work won "Best of
Show" at the North American Wildlife
Show in Cheyenne; he also won first
place in the shorebirds category of that
same show. The Rocky Mountain Elk
Foundation named him "Artist of the
Quarter" for fall 1987. He has opened a
new studio in Hamilton, Robert Neaves
Studio (109 South Fourth Street; Hamil-
ton, MT 59840; 406/363-3292). He is a
full-time wildlife artist whose work has
often been featured in our pages.

• MO wishes to thank the following
photographers for their contributions to
this issue: Jim Liebelt, Glasgow; Jerry
Manley. Butte; Rodney Schlect, Great
Falls; Bill Thomas and Jack Tuholske,
Missoula; and Mark Van Donsel, De
Pere, Wis.

PERSPECTIVES

" Old and Young

by Don Laubach and Mark Henckel
illustrated by Robert Neaves

• The following is excerpted from "Elk
Talk, ' ' a book by Don Laubach and
Mark Henckel. It comes from a chapter
called ' 'Old and Young ' '; it is reprinted
here with the authors ' permission. The
book is reviewed elsewhere in this issue
and is available from E.L.K. , Inc. , Box
85, Gardiner, MT 59030 (406/848-
7655). Cost is $12. 95 for paperback or
$19. 95 for a hard cover edition; please
add $1.50 postage for one book and
$2.50 for two or more books.— Ed.

MM*

So far, we've pretty much
taken for granted that we're
talking about your average
elk hunter. He's a person
who is in good enough
shape to hike the mountains
day after day. He's skilled enough in
woodcraft that he can get himself out of
any trouble that might befall him. In
short, he's an experienced hunter in the
prime of his life, whose skills and
physical ability are well-tuned to life in
the mountains.

The problem with that assumption is
that it really doesn't encompass a wide
enough range of individuals. Not every
elk hunter is put together that way. It
totally ignores the youngsters, those
teen-agers who are just getting their feet
wet in the elk hunting world. And it also
fails to address our older hunters, the
pioneers at the game, who may have hit
their prime some years ago but still look
to their days in the mountains each fall
with a great deal of anticipation.

Each group deserves its due. And
each also deserves the respect, cour-
tesy, and unselfish assistance of every
other hunter in the mountains, whether
we're talking about deer hunting, duck
hunting, or elk hunting.

For the young, the time we spend
with them in the mountains, and the
things we teach them there, will estab-
lish patterns that they follow for the rest

of their lives. The love and respect for
elk that we impart to the young are at
least as important as the ways and
means to hunt them. In the process, we
also have to teach them how to survive
in what can be a harsh world in the
mountains.

To do your best with the young, you
have to prepare them for the worst as
well as the best of hunting situations.
That aspect of hunting life was ham-
mered home hard when my eldest boy
reached an age when he was old enough
to begin going after elk. He had been
taught about life in the mountains and
what to do when things went sour. And
all that paid off one evening during
archery season.

It was in his freshman year of high
school, and we had walked into the
mountains in the dark that morning. We
kept to the high ground all day, working
the likely elk spots. And when evening
arrived, it was time to hike back out.
Our plans were to split up and work our
way down a ridge and meet at the
bottom. By the time we got down off the
mountain, there would be just enough
light left to get to our vehicle for the
ride home.

But somewhere along that ridge, my
boy got off into some timber and hit the
wrong ridge. He wandered off into
another drainage, then got caught in a
deadfall jungle as darkness settled into
the mountains.

He had his fanny pack along with
him, which included the basic necessit-
ies of flashlight, toilet paper, rope,
some candy bars, matches, and other
miscellaneous items in case he got lost.
And he followed my directions explicit-
ly about what to do when you get lost
and darkness settles in. He found him-
self a spot to spend the night, built
himself a fire, cut some pine boughs for
a bed, and planned to wait until day-
light. By having him stay in one spot, it
prevented an injury that could easily

take place by stumbling through the
mountains in the dark. And it also put
him in one spot for the search party,
rather than having the searchers trying
to track down a moving target.

For my part, I waited at the vehicle
for him until 10 p.m. before heading
back to town and rounding up some
friends for a search party. It was almost
midnight when we made it back to the
mountains and fanned out in pairs to
look for him.

I started up the drainage looking for
him, and eventually found him at about
3 a.m. on a little bench about 200 yards
above the creek. His first comments
were predictable, repeated often by
someone who's lost and then found,
"What took you so long?"

It was a valuable lesson for him, and
for my other children who were to join
me in elk country in the years that
followed. And it underscored the im-
portance of preparing the young well for
their hunting trips before you set foot in
the mountains. It's not enough to simply
tell them how to hunt. You have to teach
them how to survive as well. And you
have to give them the tools of survival
and instruct them in how to use them
before the hunt begins.

With older hunters, the problems
often take a different form. These
hunters possess the knowledge of the
mountains. They have the years of
experience behind them. But all too
often, they lack the compassion of their
peers when it comes to heading out on
what may be the final elk hunts of their
lives.

Where's the glory, for example, in
racing past a pair of older hunters on the
trail to beat them to a prime hunting
area? How much would be lost if you
passed up a morning of hunting to help
someone a little older in years pack their
bull out of the mountains? And what
about all the grandfathers, fathers,
uncles, and friends who you never think

to ask whether they'd like to come along
on this year's hunting trip?

My favorite story about helping an
older hunter took place far away from
elk country and involved a deer hunting
situation. An older hunter had knocked
down a whitetail and hung his tag on the
animal about the time a school bus was
passing by, taking kids to school in a
nearby town. The bus driver pulled
over, climbed the hill, helped the man
drag the deer to the road, and got it
situated on his vehicle before climbing
back into the bus and continuing his
journey. Had the kids gotten to school
late, the time still couldn't have been
better spent.

Not every older hunter needs that
kind of help, of course. In one recent
elk season, I had the pleasure of hunting

made the trip one I'll always treasure.

Too often, in our rush to hunt and
hunt hard, we forget the others who are
out there doing the same thing. It
becomes almost a competitive under-
taking to see who can get a bull, who
can get the biggest bull, and who will be
the winner.

Hunting was never meant to be that
way. It's a time for kindness and caring,
both to the people we meet while
hunting and to the elk themselves. And
no one deserves it more than the old and
young hunters among us. They are our
future and our past, a living legacy of
our times in elk country. ■

neav« ,

with Glenn Saunders of Columbus on
opening day in the Snowcrest Range.
Saunders was 70 years old at the time
and we climbed a brutally steep slope in
the early morning darkness to reach our
stands. But at least, he had the decency
to wait for me to catch my breath many
times during that climb. And his tales of
elk and deer hunts of decades gone by

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